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Malting Process

This whole process takes about seven to eight days and is carried out in buildings called the maltings. Which are usually separate from the brewery.
Malting starts with the process of steeping, or wetting the barley. Extra water is drained off and the grain gently aerated. Water and air together produce the right conditions for germination. Traditionally, germination was carried out on a flat concrete or tiled floor, Where the temperature of the grain was watched carefully as rootlets began to grow. To regulate this temperature the old - time maltster's main control was from opening or closing windows depending which way the wind was blowing! Also the malting barley had to be sprayed with water, and turned regularly with a wooden shovel. This controlled the heat retained in the grain bed, as well as keeping the rootlets from binding tightly together.
Modern malting takes place in a form of large drum box equipped with a mechanical screw to turn the grain. Forced ventilation allows air to circulate freely through the bed, controlling its temperature. If the grain is too cold it will germinate far too slowly, while if it gets hot then long shoots appear, which burn up too much of the barley's supply of starch.
As germination starts, substances called enzymes are released which act on the starch so that the brewing process can later convert it to fermentable sugar. It takes around four to five days to complete this stage, known as modification you can read more about enzymes if you like in appendix one.
Once modified, the malt is dried by kilning with hot air, which not only stops the germination process but also adds flavour and colour to the final brew. Barley growth has now stopped but the enzymes survive the kilning process, for action later on in the brewery.

Milling

Milling breaks up the malt grains into much smaller particles. This will give a large starch surface area in the mash tun and allow the soluble sugar products to escape into the mash liquid more easily. The dry crushed materials is known as grist.
The skill in milling is to produce a grist which is fine enough to release the maximum amount of sugars from mash, but not so fine that it will cause clogging difficulties during extraction from the mash later on.

Mashing

Mashing is the stage of mixing the crushed malt with hot liquor. The purpose is to allow enzymes to "convert" the starch which dissolves in the hot mash. During conversion the long starch chains are chopped up into small sugars, most of which are fermentable. The hot liquid containing these dissolved sugars, when strained from the mash, is called wort.
Mash temperatures are critical if the enzymes are to be able to act efficiently (malt starch is best converted in the range of 149 to 156 degrees Fahrenheit). Therefore a great deal of care is taken at this stage to control, and if necessary adjust, temperature and mashing time. For example, as little as 1 degrees Fahrenheit increase in temperature can make the wort noticeably less fermentable and affect beer taste. Accurate control helps produce a brew that is of the same quality each and every time.

In the Copper or Boiling of the Wort

The wort is next sent to the copper or wort kettle for boiling. Even though in modern breweries this vessel is usually made of stainless steel, it is still referred to as the "Copper".
Wort is brought up to boiling point in the copper by means of a steam heater or fire and then given a vigorous boil. Boiling times vary considerably but are usually about one hour. This causes the wort to evaporate, so that the volume reduces, while it's strength increases. Both the time and vigour of boil are carefully controlled to ensure that evaporation, for any one type of beer, remains the same for every brew.
Hops
At this stage, another raw material is added - hops - to give the beer its characteristic bitter flavour and aroma.
There are many different varieties of hops, and each has its own particular flavour. In Britain, the famous hop growing areas are in Kent in the South-East of England, and Worcestershire in the Midlands. We use these together with other sources of hops from Germany and other areas. Hop cones are picked by machinery nowadays (the days of going on hop picking holidays are over), then kiln dried, and made into small Hop Pellets.
In the past, hops were added on a rather random basis. Chemists can now analyse hops to measure the ingredient which produces the bitterness in the beer, so that we know just how much hops to add to give the beer the taste we desire.

Wort boiling kills any organisms left alive after mashing, and stops all remaining enzyme activity. Boiled wort is therefore sterile and inactive. Boiling also causes much of the material, which would make the wort look cloudy, to clump together or "flocculate". This material will then sediment out later to leave the wort brilliantly clear.
Hop pellets are boiled with the wort which causes them to break up and release their bitterness and flavour. Unfortunately much of the hop aroma is boiled off up the stack, so if we are brewing "hoppy beers" it is common to add more, special aroma hops towards the end of the boil.
Developments have taken place to produce hop extracts which can add bitterness and flavour directly into the beer, with greater efficiency than copper hopping.

Cooling of the Wort

Yeast is a living organism and, like most of us, would be killed off at the temperature of boiling liquids! Therefore, we need to cool the wort to a temperature at which the yeast will ferment comfortably. This is usually in the range 60 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, which means the wort must be cooled down a great deal as soon as possible.

Yeast

Brewing is a natural process which depends on a small, plant-like organism called yeast. Yeast grows and multiplies by feeding on various types of sugars, which it turns to energy. It needs small amounts of oxygen to do this. As well as energy to grow, yeast also produces energy in the form of heat, along with water and a gas called carbon dioxide. In fact we use sugar and oxygen in the same way ourselves, obtaining energy from our food. However, once the oxygen has been used up, yeast does something we certainly can't - it generates alcohol. This is fermentation and the sugars that the yeast can digest are called fermentable sugars.
Yeast is alive when it's used for fermentation. If it's treated badly - kept too hot or too cold for instance - it stops working, as you might do yourself! Neither can it survive being kept too acid or too alkaline; both will quickly damage it. The best conditions are known as the "correct pH".
This means that the whole of the brewing process has to be carefully controlled to allow the yeast to do its job; and this is a major part of the brewer's skill.
Yeast Handling And Recovery Skimming and cone removal are two methods by which yeast may be separated from the rough beer, and removed to storage vessels. However, rather than simply waiting until the yeast sinks and clears the beer, we can put the beer through a centrifuge. This is a machine like a spin dryer, which by rotating very fast causes much of the yeast to separate out immediately. This is then drawn off for recovery.

Fermentation

The yeast is now "pitched", usually by injecting the correct quantity, in slurried form, into the cooled aerated wort stream on its way to the fermenting vessel.
Once the yeast is pitched, there is a short delay while the yeast adjusts to its new surroundings. It soon sets about growing and multiplying to produce more yeast. As it does so, it uses up the sugars as a food source and produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. To the yeast, of course, these are waste products!.
Some of the carbon dioxide gas dissolves in the beer to give it the characteristic fizz, but large quantities are allowed to escape from the fermenter and must be vented away safely.
Fermentation is a process which gives out energy and this causes the temperature to rise. If this isn't controlled, the yeast can be damaged and the beer flavour ruined.
The progress of the fermentation is controlled by adjusting the temperature. As you might expect, the fermentation goes slower if it's cooler. Fermentation can take anything from three days to four weeks depending on the type of beer you are making, the original gravity of the wort, and the temperature.

Maturation

The next stage after fermentation is maturation, which is achieved by holding the beer for a period to improve its flavour. This also allows yeast and other solid matter to settle out before filtration. Until all the yeast is settled, the "rough" beer will still be cloudy. Because of the different ways in which ales yeasts operate, maturation of ales needs only a couple weeks of conditioning.

Fill out the form below to find out the estimated Bittering Units (BU) in your homebrew. When you finish entering all the values click Calculate to send them to the calculator program.

Please enter the following values:

Boil Volume = gallons
Boil wort gravity (specific gravity) =
Mass of hops added = ounces
Alpha acid rating = percent
Time hops were boiled = minutes
Approximate Bittering Units = 34.5

Hops

What Are Hops?

Hops are cultivated flowers (humulus lupulus), green in color with yellow lupulin glands down between the petals, used for preservative and flavoring characteristics in beer. The bitterness of the hop is used to balance the sweetness of the malt, and the essential oils add a flavor/aroma which cannot be achieved by using any other plant. The hop plant is a perennial spiraling vine which will grow in almost any climate given enough water and sunlight. It can climb either string or poles and can reach heights of 40 feet. The flowers (or cones as they are often called) are usually dried before use.

Bittering Compounds

One of the major contributions hops give to beer is a characteristic bitterness that provides a counterpoint to the rich sweetness provided by the malt. This bitter flavor is extracted from the hops during the boil. It is during this time that virtually insoluble alpha acids are isomerized (rearranged without changing their composition) into more soluble and stable iso-alpha acids, the main bittering substance in beer. Five different naturally occurring alpha acids have been isolated from hops which are:

humulone
cohumulone
adhumulone
prehumulone
posthumulone

Although isomerized alpha acids are the biggest contributers, hops contain beta acids which also add bitterness to beer. The beta acids are similar to alpha acids both in structure and abundance. In contrast to alpha acids, it is not isomerized beta acids that add bitterness, it is the oxidation products of the beta acids, which are bitter and soluble, that make their presence felt. It should be noted that oxidized beta acids are not as bitter as isomerized alpha acids, and thus contribute much less to the final bitterness of the beer.

Both the alpha and beta acids are very susceptible to oxidation, especially at temperatures above freezing. Theoretical losses of alpha acids of up to 60% have been calculated for hops which are packaged and stored poorly. This is important because once alpha acids have been oxidized they can no longer be isomerized into iso-alpha acid, thus decreasing the hop's bittering potential. As stated above, oxidation components of beta acids contribute to bitterness, thus the bittering potential of oxidized hops may not decrease as much as is commonly thought. This does not, in any way, argue against storing hops well, since essential oils are dramatically and negatively altered by oxidation.

For these reasons, the "storageability" of each hop variety is sometimes provided, along with the alpha and beta acid levels, by the hop broker. This parameter is usually given as a percentage of the alpha acids present after 6 months at 20C. Some good storage hops (usually high alpha acid) lose only 15-20% of their alpha acids: Cluster and Galena are among the best. Most high quality aroma hops lose anywhere from 35-65% of their alpha acids unless anaerobic conditions and cold storage (< 0C) are provided. This is why it is imperative for brewers to buy the freshest hops available and store them in the coldest environment available, usually the freezer. It is also important to package the hops properly, which means removing as much oxygen as possible and containing them in an oxygen barrier material.

Aroma and Flavor Compounds

Hops bring a lot more to beer than bitterness. The volatile oils, usually 0.5 - 3.0% (vol/wt) of the hop cone, are an important flavor component of many types of beer. Brewers seeking to maximize hop flavor and aroma generally make late kettle additions (0-15 min. before cooling) with high quality "aroma" hops. Dry hopping, i.e. the addition of hops to the secondary fermenter or serving tank, is another way to add hop character to a beer although the aroma components retained by this method differ from those obtained in late kettle additions. The maximum oil utilization is about 10 - 15% which decreases with increased boiling time.

The essential oils are what give hops their unique aroma; each variety has its own distinct profile. The smell of hops freshly crushed in your hand is quite often different than that in a finished beer. This is due to the fact that the major components in hop oil, beta-pinene, myrcene, beta- caryophyllene, farnesene and alpha-humulene, are not usually found in beer. This is also the reason that measures of "total hop oil percentage" that some hop retailers provide are considered by some to be useless information. On the other hand, fermentation and oxidation products of these compounds, especially humulene epoxides and diepoxides are considered contributors to "hoppy" flavors and aroma. The exception here is with dry-hopping, where some of the hop oil components do survive into the beer intact.

Researchers have not been able to duplicate the complexities of hoppy character by adding pure chemicals in any proportion or combination. Consensus is that there is a synergistic blend of several compounds, some of which may have not yet been discovered.

Hop researchers, using capillary gas chromatography, have detected and identified more than 250 essential oil components in hops. Twenty two of these have been pinpointed as being good indicators of hoppiness potential. They are subdivided into 3 groups, humulene and caryophyllene oxidative products, floral/estery compounds, and citrus/piney compounds, as listed below:

Oxidation Products:

caryolan-1-ol
caryophyllene oxide
humulene diepoxide a
humulene diepoxide b
humulene diepoxide c
humulene epoxide I
humulene epoxide II
humulene epoxide III
humulenol II
humulol

Floral/Estery Compounds:

geraniol
geranyl acetate
geranyl isobutyrate
linalool

Citrus/Piney Compounds:

delta-cadinene
gamma-cadinene
citral
limonene
limonene-10-ol
alpha-muurolene
nerol
beta-selenene

Different Hop Products

Much has been written about what form of hops should be used. Loose hops are just that: loose cones which have been dried after picking. Plugs are loose hops which have been subsequently pressed into a bung under pressure, generally in 0.5 oz. sizes. Pellets are loose hops which have been ground to a fine powder and then pressed into rabbit-food-sized pellets.

Loose Hops

Advantages: They are the most natural form of the ingredient. They float, which is good for siphoning out from under, and form a natural filter bed. When they are fresh, they beat all other forms in delivering the original hop compounds to the beer (processing hops alters the volatile hop compounds in many ways).

Disadvantages: They float, so some contact with a still wort (as in dry hopping) is thought to be lost; this disadvantage is certainly arguable though, especially when it is considered that by using weighted hop bags, it is a non-issue. Since they are loose, exposure to air (oxygen) may be greater which could cause them to lose quality more quickly than the other forms of hops (note that this point is debatable). When stored in vacuum- sealed or CO2 or nitrogen purged Oxygen barrier bags or jars, this potential problem can be avoided. They are bulkier than other forms.

Plugs

Advantages: Are nearly the same as loose hops, in that, when hydrated, they become whole hop cones again. Like loose hops, they float. They may be better protected from air, but this is unproven.

Disadvantages: Few hop varieties come in this form. Currently, any domestic varieties are first shipped to England where they are made into plugs and then shipped back to the U.S. This probably negates any potential freshness advantage they have over loose hops (for U.S. varieties). It is difficult, but not impossible to separate into increments smaller than 0.5 oz. The compression of the hops into this form causes the lupulin glands to burst, which causes a finite loss of the volatile hop aromatic compounds and could cause increased alpha acid oxidation.

Pellets

Advantages: Convenient to measure and may have better protection from air (another unproven assumption). They sink, so they get maximum contact in a still wort, as when used for dry hopping (may or may not be an advantage). If they are subsequently covered with dead yeast, wort contact is mostly lost, so careful timing is recommended when using them for dry hopping. They reportedly contribute 10% more alpha acids to the wort because of maximized surface area, so are a more efficient use of this relatively expensive ingredient. They are generally available in more varieties.

Disadvantages: They sink and are powdered, so it is difficult to avoid them when siphoning. The extra processing of chopping and compressing negatively affects hop compounds.

Given the pros and cons listed, the choice of which form of hop to use in a certain application is up to the individual brewer and dependent upon the individual brewhouse. With some kettle arrangements (those using a hopback, for instance) loose hops can form a utilitarian filter bed. In others, the mass of loose hops can be a nuisance and soak up a large quantity of wort which is lost to the brewer. It should be noted that fresh, whole hops are available today from many sources, including mail-order nationwide (US) from companies such as Just Hops, Freshops, and HopTech, which may negate many of the advantages of processed hops.

Estimating Beer Bitterness

The simplest way to describe the bittering potential of a given hop sample is to use Alpha Acid Units (AAU) or Homebrew Bittering Units (HBU) (they're the same). For the sake of discussion we will use the term AAU, which is calculated as follows:

AAU = AA * W

where:

AA = alpha acid % provided with the hops
W = weight of the hops in ounces

AAU's are literally hundredths of an ounce, so the units would be ounces. This is a bit awkward, and they are usually discussed as if they are "unit-less". It is generally assumed that, when using AAU or HBU, the batch size is the standard homebrewing unit of 5 gallons. If a beer is said to have 10 AAU's of bitterness in it, and it is a 5 gallon batch, there would probably be no confusion. On the other hand, if it is a 10 gallon batch, there is actually half the AAU's per gallon when compared to the 5 gallon batch and the beer would be quite different. Another drawback to using AAU's is that they don't consider the utilization obtained from long, intermediate, or short boil times. Fudge factors are sometimes added but at best they offer a rough approximation.

To help solve these problems, the International Bittering Unit (IBU) may be used. An IBU is defined as 1 mg/l of iso-alpha-acid in a solution. By estimating IBUs rather than HBUs, the brewer can get a more accurate (though admittedly still rough) approximation of the bitterness imparted into the beer by the hops. It is independent of batch size so that a 5 gallon batch with 29 IBU's has the same bitterness as a 50 barrel batch with 29 IBU's. The equations are commonly quoted from Jackie Rager's article in the "Zymurgy" Hops and Beer Special Edition published in 1990. Revised numbers and formulae have recently been presented by Glenn Tinseth and Mark Garetz, in separate works. Rager has been taken to task for not supplying enough background references, and not fully explaining how he got his numbers. In general, his utilization estimates are believed to be optimistic. Garetz has been accused of extrapolating scant laboratory information, and overgeneralizing because of it. His numbers have been labelled unrealistic on the pessimistic side. Tinseth has just presented a revised method and set of tables, and though they are thought to be quite accurate, they have not stood the test of time. The calculated numbers tend to fall in between Rager's and Garetz's. Note also that these are all estimates. Actual IBUs can be measured in a laboratory, but the average homebrewer has no access to such equipment. The Rager, Garetz, and Tinseth estimation methods follow.

Rager Method

Boiling Time (minutes) %Utilization
-----------------------------------
 0 -  5                       5.0
 6 - 10                       6.0
11 - 15                       8.0
16 - 20                      10.1
21 - 25                      12.1
26 - 30                      15.3
31 - 35                      18.8
36 - 40                      22.8
41 - 45                      26.9

This utilization can be reduced to a smooth function, as opposed to the table, which produces many discontinuous lines. The Rager table is represented by the following utilization equation:

%UTILIZATION = 18.11 + 13.86 * hyptan[(MINUTES - 31.32) / 18.27]

According to Rager, if the gravity of the boil exceeds 1.050, there is a gravity adjustment (GA) to factor in:

GA = (BOIL_GRAVITY - 1.050)
     ----------------------
             0.2

otherwise,

GA = 0

Metric Units

IBU = (GRAMS OF HOPS) * %UTILIZATION * %ALPHA * 1000
      ------------------------------------------------
                 VOLUME(litres) * (1 + GA)

Non-metric Units

IBU  = (OUNCES OF HOPS) * %UTILIZATION * %ALPHA * 7462
       -------------------------------------------------
                 VOLUME(gallons) * (1 + GA)

Jackie Rager's numbers have been used successfully by thousands of homebrewers and provide a consistent base with which to work. Note that the figures expressed as percent should be entered as decimal values in the formula (9% = 0.09). It is apparent that his constant 7462, derived from metric to US conversion, is actually closer to 7490. The GA factor could be questioned as well, as it is intuitively obvious that a gravity of 1.049 does not affect utilization exactly the same as a gravity of 1.000 (water). It is assumed (but not verified) that the utilization table is corrected for this assumption and/or the difference is small enough that it has little effect on the final bitterness of the beer.

The unfortunate part of Rager's article is that it is completely lacking in references, so assumptions come with it part and parcel. Note also that Rager's numbers are often used for pellet hops thrown loose in the boil. Al Korzonas suggests adding 10% more hops if used in a hop bag, and 10% more than that if loose hops or plugs are used.

Garetz Method

It has been reported that since iso-alpha acids possess a slight electrical charge, they can be lost in many ways. Among these are absorption into the yeast cell walls (and subsequent removal of the yeast), attachment to coagulating proteins (and subsequent removal of this trub), attachment to filters, etc. It is unclear if Mr. Rager's utilization numbers have assumed these losses, but it can be assumed that Tinseth and Garetz did take them into account. The Garetz numbers below represent average yeast flocculation; he also provides tables which represent fast and slow yeast flocculation.


Boiling Time (minutes) %Util (Avg Yeast)
----------------------------------------
 0 -  5                    0
 6 - 10                    0
11 - 15                    2
16 - 20                    5
21 - 25                    8
26 - 30                   11
31 - 35                   14
36 - 40                   16
41 - 45                   18
46 - 50                   19
51 - 60                   20
61 - 70                   21
71 - 80                   22
81 - 90                   23

According to Garetz, there are several adjustment factors, that he brings together in the formula with the term "combined adjustments" (CA):

CA = GF * HF * TF

where GF is the Gravity Factor, HF is the Hopping Rate Factor, and TF is the Temperature Factor. To calculate it all, he starts with some he calls CF:

Concentration Factor:  CF = Final Volume / Boil Volume,

to account for concentrated boils of extract brews.

Next, calculate Boil Gravity (BG):

BG = (CF * (Starting Gravity - 1)) + 1

Then calculate GF:

       BG - 1.050
GF  =  ----------  + 1
           .2

HF is calculated as follows:

HF  = ((CF * Desired IBUs)/260) + 1

TF is based on elevation as follows:

TF  = ((Elevation in feet) / 550) * 0.02) + 1

These are all put into the following formula, along with the utilization from the table, and the IBUs are calculated. Note two things: 1) the utilization and alpha acids should be expressed as whole numbers (7% = 7), and 2) this process is iterative, since it contains a term (HF) based on your goal IBUs. You must guess at the final result, do the math, and rerun the process, each time adjusting the value downward. It takes a little practice, but can be done.

Metric Units

IBU = (%Utilization) * (%Alpha) * Hop weight(grams) * 0.1
      ---------------------------------------------------
                       Volume(liters) * CA

Non-Metric Units

IBU = (%Utilization) * (%Alpha) * Hop weight(ounces) * 0.749
      ------------------------------------------------------
                       Volume(Gallons) * CA

Garetz goes to allow for a yeast factor (YF), pellet factor (PF), bag factor (BF), and filter factor (FF), and comes up with:

CA = GF * HF * TF * PF * BF * FF

This allows you to adjust the formula based on your own brewery and practices.

Tinseth Method

Glenn Tinseth's method doesn't involve as many factors, but is still a bit more complex than the original Rager method.Tinseth notes that his table is optimized for fresh whole cones loose in the boil, although easily adjustable for other forms of hops. He builds the gravity adjustment into the utilization tables and offers the following:

Decimal Alpha Acid Utilization vs. Boil Time and Wort Original Gravity

Boil	Original Gravity									
Time	1.030	1.040	1.050	1.060	1.070	1.080	1.090	1.100	1.110	1.120	1.130
(min)
  0	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
  3	0.034	0.031	0.029	0.026	0.024	0.022	0.020	0.018	0.017	0.015	0.014
  6	0.065	0.059	0.054	0.049	0.045	0.041	0.038	0.035	0.032	0.029	0.026
  9	0.092	0.084	0.077	0.070	0.064	0.059	0.054	0.049	0.045	0.041	0.037
 12	0.116	0.106	0.097	0.088	0.081	0.074	0.068	0.062	0.056	0.052	0.047
 15	0.137	0.125	0.114	0.105	0.096	0.087	0.080	0.073	0.067	0.061	0.056
 18	0.156	0.142	0.130	0.119	0.109	0.099	0.091	0.083	0.076	0.069	0.063
 21	0.173	0.158	0.144	0.132	0.120	0.110	0.101	0.092	0.084	0.077	0.070
 24	0.187	0.171	0.157	0.143	0.131	0.120	0.109	0.100	0.091	0.083	0.076
 27	0.201	0.183	0.168	0.153	0.140	0.128	0.117	0.107	0.098	0.089	0.082
 30	0.212	0.194	0.177	0.162	0.148	0.135	0.124	0.113	0.103	0.094	0.086
 33	0.223	0.203	0.186	0.170	0.155	0.142	0.130	0.119	0.108	0.099	0.091
 36	0.232	0.212	0.194	0.177	0.162	0.148	0.135	0.124	0.113	0.103	0.094
 39	0.240	0.219	0.200	0.183	0.167	0.153	0.140	0.128	0.117	0.107	0.098
 42	0.247	0.226	0.206	0.189	0.172	0.158	0.144	0.132	0.120	0.110	0.101
 45	0.253	0.232	0.212	0.194	0.177	0.162	0.148	0.135	0.123	0.113	0.103
 48	0.259	0.237	0.216	0.198	0.181	0.165	0.151	0.138	0.126	0.115	0.105
 51	0.264	0.241	0.221	0.202	0.184	0.169	0.154	0.141	0.129	0.118	0.108
 54	0.269	0.246	0.224	0.205	0.188	0.171	0.157	0.143	0.131	0.120	0.109
 57	0.273	0.249	0.228	0.208	0.190	0.174	0.159	0.145	0.133	0.121	0.111
 60	0.276	0.252	0.231	0.211	0.193	0.176	0.161	0.147	0.135	0.123	0.112
 70	0.285	0.261	0.238	0.218	0.199	0.182	0.166	0.152	0.139	0.127	0.116
 80	0.291	0.266	0.243	0.222	0.203	0.186	0.170	0.155	0.142	0.130	0.119
 90	0.295	0.270	0.247	0.226	0.206	0.188	0.172	0.157	0.144	0.132	0.120
120	0.301	0.275	0.252	0.230	0.210	0.192	0.176	0.161	0.147	0.134	0.123

To calculate IBUs, the formula is simple:

IBUs = decimal alpha acid utilization * mg/l of added alpha acids

For those who want to make adjustments based on their own brewery, he offers the following:

Metric Units

mg/l of added alpha acids = decimal AA rating * grams hops * 1000
                            -------------------------------------
                                        liters of wort

Non-Metric Units

mg/l of added alpha acids = decimal AA rating * ozs hops * 7490
                            -------------------------------------
                                        gallons of wort

The decimal alpha acid utilization is calculated using Tinseth's two empirical factors: the Bigness factor and the Boil Time factor.

Decimal Alpha Acid Utilization = Bigness Factor * Boil Time Factor

The Bigness Factor accounts for reduced utilization due to higher wort gravities.

Bigness factor = 1.65 * 0.000125^(wort gravity - 1)

The Boil Time Factor gives the varying utilization based on boil time:

Boil Time factor = 1 - e^(-0.04 * time in mins)
                   --------------------------
                             4.15

Some comments from Tinseth:
"The numbers 1.65 and 0.000125 are empirically derived to fit my data. The number 0.04 controls the shape of the util vs. time curve. The factor 4.15 controls the max util value--make it smaller if your util is higher than mine.
I'd suggest fiddling with 4.15 if necessary to match your system, only play with the other three if you like to muck around. I make no guarantees if you do.
You might notice that the shape of the util curves is very similar to that of Randy Mosher's. He and I seem to have independently arrived at the same conclusion.

The really cool thing about these new equations is that they are easily customizable. I believe the basic form is correct--by playing with the different factors, different brewers should be able to make them fit their breweries perfectly. The root of the equations is the basic first order chemical reaction, i.e. the AA isomerization seems be first order (or pseudo-first order)."

Bitterness Summary

It should be obvious that the alpha acid utilization is a widely debated topic, and that it is not an exact science. Homebrewing systems vary so widely that it is impossible to be very accurate with the IBU estimates. The homebrewer who strives to be accurate within 10% of actual can probably achieve it, and verify it with known commercial examples. The human tongue is accurate enough for this delightful experiment. Precision with IBUs is certainly achievable, with careful record-keeping, including personal sensory descriptions, and the use of a consistent set of formulae and utilization tables. These steps will go a long way toward consistent quality beer.
One question that appears on occasion is whether you lose bitterness if you boil the hops for too long, e.g. longer than two hours. According to Glenn Tinseth, multiple studies have shown that alpha acid utilization always increases with boil time, even out to 3 hours of boiling. The reason the tables quit around 60 minutes of boiling, is that little utilization is gained beyond that. In fact, after about 45 minutes the curve becomes quite flat. In other words, beyond that the utilization increase is small compared to the added time involved. It is speculated that commercial brewers found that beyond 45-60 minutes or so, the benefit of the added utilization was more than offset by the cost of the energy to continue the boil as well as the cost of the added time in the process.

A final note about bitterness: IBUs are not the final word when it comes to the perceived bitterness of beer. Sulfates, dark grains, tannins, and other compounds found in beer contribute to the bitterness sensation. For this reason, comparison of bitterness between styles (and sometimes even different beers within a style) is difficult.

How Bitter Should It Be?

The AHA and probably other organizations publish (large) charts which define the range of IBUs expected in a given style. It is outside the scope of this FAQ to go into that much detail on beer styles, but hopping rates from 10 IBU to 60 IBU or more have been noted in commercial beers. The following table from an article titled "Matching Hops with Beer Styles" by Quentin B. Smith in the 1990 "Zymurgy" Hops and Beer Special Issue may help. Other factors are just as important as OG, such as FG, sulfate content of the water, and the style of beer, but this will get you started:

Balanced Beer Hop Chart

        Wort OG             IBU
        -------             ---
        1.010                4
        1.020                8
        1.030               12
        1.040               16
        1.050               24
        1.060               32
        1.070               40
        1.080               48
        1.090               56
        1.100               64

Storing Hops

Store hops at as low a temperature as possible, hopefully in your freezer. Also, attempt to remove as much air as possible from the package and use airtight, preferably oxygen-barrier packages.

Growing Hops

Hops for beer-making grow from the rhizomes of female hop plants. Rhizomes look like root cuttings but have buds growing from them that will become new vines. Rhizomes also contain stored nutrients to support initial growth.
Hops grow vertically as one or more vines that spiral up a twine or other support. Depending on latitude, location, and variety, they sprout from March or April and grow through the summer and early fall. A single plant can easily grow 40 feet tall when it is mature but growth in the first year is usually much less. In most instances by the second or third year the plants will exhibit full growth. Height is very closely linked to the amount of sunshine the plant gets.
Hops grow best in full sun and you should pick a spot with the best possible southern exposure. Hops grow best in loose, well drained soil. Blended peat moss and sand make a good growing environment. In cases of poor soil drainage, it can be helpful to create a mound of soil a foot or so tall which will aid drainage.
Hops need lots of water. As they grow be sure to give them a very good soaking at least once a week. There are reports that once-a-day waterings (up to 6.5 gallons per mound) give greater growth and yield. Mulch in the summer helps with weed control and also holds water. Hops also have big appetites; composted cow manure is an excellent well-balanced fertilizer for them.
Once a bed has been prepared the rhizomes are planted about 4 inches below the soil surface with any obvious buds coming from the rhizome oriented to point upward.

After several inches the new vines can be thinned so that just the most healthy and vigorous three vines are left to continue growing. This will be an ongoing process as new shoots may show up later, but the initial thinning is thought to be important by some home hop growers. It's been reported that the young shoots that are culled may be steamed and eaten like asparagus. On the other hand, some growers espouse cutting the new shoots at all, allowing all vines to grow to full height.

As the vines grow over a foot tall they should be trained to grow up a twine. This can be done by twisting the vine around the line. This may have to be repeated for a few days before the vine gets the idea. Hops will have a natural tendency to wrap clockwise looking down.

The most common hops trellis consists of strings running from the roof of a building down to stakes driven into the soil near the plants. Another option, often used by commercial growers, consists of a large central pole, with strings running from the top of the pole down to the foot of each plant, similar to the spokes on a wheel. Expect the string or twine to hold a lot of weight as the vines grow tall. A 25+ foot plant may weigh 20+ pounds.

Hop blossoms start out looking like large sand burrs, and then take on a characteristic cone shape as they grow in size. The size of a fully developed cone depends on the variety, varying from 1 to 2 inches long by 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter.

The hops are fully mature and ready for picking when two changes take place. First, immature hops have a damp, soft feel and when squeezed slightly tend to stay compressed. Mature hops feel more like paper, spring back when squeezed, and feel noticeably lighter. The second key test is to pick an average example hop and cut it lengthwise down the center with a knife. When ready to pick, the yellow powder (the lupulin sacs containing the essential oils and bitter compounds) will be a dark shade of yellow, like the stripes on a highway, and it will be pungent. If a light shade of yellow then its likely the hops are immature.

When ready to pick it is best to snip the stems of the cones with scissors or a knife to avoid jarring the hops and knocking lupulin powder out or worse, pulling the center of the cone out with the stem, causing a great loss of lupulin. Touching hops plants can cause skin irritation in some people; gloves and long sleeves can help in this matter.

Just-picked hops are roughly 80 percent water; if left alone they spoil rapidly. For proper storage most of the water is removed by drying. A good drying method is to lie the hops on a card or screen in an attic. Just a few hours during the heat of summer or a few hours more in cooler weather is enough to dry the hops. Use a before and after weighing (and trial and error) to try to achieve about 7-10 percent residual moisture after drying.

After drying, hops keep best at low temperatures and away from oxygen. A kitchen freezer easily takes care of temperature but to get the hops away from oxygen is difficult. Tightly packing hops in canning jars will minimize the trapped air but be careful not to use too much force and break the all important lupulin sacs since this accelerates oxidation. Purging the canning jar of oxygen by blowing in carbon dioxide from a kegging system will also help prolong freshness.

It's common to get 4 or 5 harvests per year by picking the biggest, most mature hops every 2 weeks or so as the flowers ripen. Patience and judgement are important since cones left on the vine too long turn brown and begin to oxidize and spoil, while immature hops have little lupulin to give.

At the end of the growing season when the leaves have fallen or turned brown, cut the vines at the surface of the soil and if possible remove the twine. After cutting back the vines a layer of 3 or 4 inches of mulch and composted manure can be put over the exposed vines for insulation and nutrition during the winter.

Japanese beetles are the number one nuisance in many areas. A common remedy is to position a "Bag a Bug" type beetle trap about 30 feet directly up wind from the hop vines. There is some concern that the "Bag a Bug" traps may actually attract more beetles than they catch, but that probably depends on the situation. Certain plants such as rose bushes may also attract the beetles, so it's best to keep those plants away from your hops. Also, the beetles' larvae live in the ground, and in cases of extreme Japanese Beetle infestation the surrounding lawn may need to be treated accordingly. A number of other pests, such as aphids, can harm hops, and can be treated with any number of pesticides. Since you will be consuming these hops, you should use low toxicity natural pesticides, such as 1% Rotenone dust, for direct pest control on the plants. As with any consumable, you should ensure that any pesticide is well washed before using the hops.

Ladybugs are the best, most natural way to get rid of aphids and a lot of other bugs. However, it can be difficult to keep them on your hop plants once you run out of food for them. A good idea is to plant some cilantro/coriander between your hop hills. Ladybugs are attracted to this plant and it will keep their attention between feedings of aphids. You can even harvest the cilantro (the leaves) for cooking and use the coriander (the seeds) in Witbier.

One other hazard is animals. A short fence of rabbit wire will keep cats, dogs, rabbits, etc. at bay, but won't do much against deer.

Rhizomes are available from an increasing number of sources. American Brewmaster in Raleigh, NC, and Freshops in Philomath, OR, are all well-known suppliers. Cost is usually a few dollars each. They should be kept in plastic bags, moist and cold in your refrigerator until they are planted.

Additional information about hop growing can be found in "Homegrown Hops" by David R. Beach. Also, the 1990 Zymurgy Hops and Beer Special Issue is devoted to hops and contains an article about growing hops by Pierre Rajotte. The AHA also has additional hops-oriented publications.

Dry Hopping

Dry hopping can be defined as adding hops to a cooled wort at sometime during the fermentation process. It can be thought of as "cold-hopping" or "raw-hopping", as these hops do not "cook" like the kettle hops. It adds a fresh hops aroma/flavor to the beer which cannot be matched with hop additions into hot wort. It is not to be confused with finish/aroma hopping, which is done on the hot wort while still in the kettle. The use of a hop-back, where hot wort is passed through the hops, is another form of finish hopping; it is not dry hopping. Dry hopping gives no alpha acids to the wort, but it may contribute some oxidized beta acids; its bittering contribution to the final product is very small. It is more likely to add a perceived bitterness with the addition of the intense aroma rather than an actual bitterness due to bitter acids.
There are several ways to dry hop, if one considers the variations of making hop teas, etc. The best time to dry hop is after primary fermentation has slowed and little CO2 is being driven off the wort. Dry hopping earlier than this point is inefficient as the volatile hop oils are scrubbed away by the exiting CO2. Also, dry hopping early in the fermentation phase may result in hops on the bottom of the fermenter being covered with yeast, which results in inefficient extraction of aroma. Another consideration of timing dry hopping is with infection risk. Hops in contact with boiling wort are effectively sanitized. Addition of dry hops after primary fermentation allows them to contact a wort/beer with some alcohol and less sugar, which prevents infections from getting a foothold.
The proper length of time for dry hopping is dependent on the temperature. At ale temperatures, 7-14 days of contact time is widely used. At lager temperatures, although little data is available as few lagers are dry hopped, it seems obvious that longer contact times, on the order of 14-21 days, are called for. It is common to use 0.5 - 2.0 oz. or more in a 5 gallon batch, but as always it is up to the individual's preferences and the hop variety. An ounce or more of East Kent Goldings in the secondary will add a nice aroma, but probably not overpowering to most brewers. A similar amount of Cascades, on the other hand, are not for the faint of heart! The rare commercial brewer that dry hops generally leaves the hops on the beer for a longer time than the average, impatient homebrewer. This is undoubtedly to extract more aroma from this relatively expensive ingredient.
EKGs, Fuggles, Northern Brewer, Saaz, Cascade, all Hallertauer variants, and many other hops have been used successfully. It should be noted that the aroma of the beer greatly influences the profile, and that the "correct" aroma hop should be used to match the style (i.e. English hops for English ales). American brewers have traditionally used hops from all over the globe so European hops, for example, can be used without fear of a brewing faux pas. Note also that traditionally, German beers are not dry-hopped, but that American versions of German styles are sometimes dry hopped.
The first and foremost way to dry hop is to simply put the hops into the fermenter. The most common worry with this method is about infecting a beer which is nearly ready to bottle/keg. Hops are natural preservatives, and infections from this method are very rare. Of course, an infection source in a homebrewery is impossible to prove, but this risk is certainly minimal. If loose hops or plugs are used, they will float, and some brewers use a sanitized hop bag and marbles to sink the hops for maximum contact. If pellets are used they will sink, but may be difficult to avoid when bottling or kegging. Also, the pellet hops can be easily covered by yeast falling out of suspension, so they should be added after virtually all fermentation activity has ceased, and a good amount of the yeast has fallen. Finally, it is worth mentioning that, for many, pellets are not well regarded for dry hopping because the pelletization process is known to be very rough on the volatile aromatic compounds which the brewer is attempting to capture. Others swear by them, claiming the pre-burst lupulin glands provide more aroma to the beer.
Another method used to dry hop is to steep the hops in a white alcohol (grain, vodka, etc.) and sometimes water solution for hours or days, then pour this solution into the fermenter. This is a common practice among those who want to protect against the remote possibility of infection with normal dry hopping. It should be noted that as the temperature of the alcohol/water/hops mixture is raised, the effect approaches that of finish hopping, as the most volatile hop oils are driven off.
Adding hop oil, a product recently introduced to the homebrewing market, is another way of "dry-hopping". It should be done after primary fermentation has slowed for many of the same reasons.
These dry hopping methods, and others, will produce different results, mainly because the desired compounds are so volatile. The variety of reactions taking place during processing and fermentation will affect the results. Some have noted grassy and otherwise unpleasant aromas from the practice of dry hopping, so it is not for all beers, nor for all people. The "best" method is the one which gives the desired result to the individual homebrewer.

A final note about dry-hopping: the volatile hop compounds will react quickly with oxygen. For this reason, extra measures should be taken to avoid mixing with air during bottling or kegging, in order to retain the hop aroma for extended periods of time. These extra measures may include purging the bottling vessel and keg with CO2, very quiet siphoning, oxygen scavenging caps, and possibly delayed capping after bottling. This method allows any CO2 coming out of solution during the bottling process to push the oxygen out of the bottle before the caps are secured. This method is used by many homebrewers but, as always, the results are inconclusive. The simplest method is to use the oxygen scavenging caps, which requires no extra effort and little extra cost. For further reference, the Summer 1993 "Zymurgy" contains an article by Mark Garetz on this subject.

What is a "Hop-back"?

A homebrewer's hop-back is a reservoir connected in-line between the kettle and counter-flow chiller. It is filled with fresh hops before the flow is started. The hot wort flows through the fresh hops and is quickly chilled by the counter-flow before entering the fermenter. Many of the volatile hop aroma compounds are extracted and brought into the fermenter with this process. It is generally thought to produce a flavor/aroma profile somewhere between late kettle additions and dry-hopping. A good article by Kinney Baughman on building a hop-back is in the "Zymurgy" Gadgets and Equipment Special Issue, and another, written by Charlie Stackhouse, is in the Fall 1994 "Zymurgy" edition.

Wet vs. Dried Hops?

Yes, you can but at best it is a rough guess as to how much. The rule of thumb is to use 6 times as much (by weight) as you would dry hops. A safer rule would be to do this and to only use them for finish/dry hopping. Since these hops have not been tested, the AA% is unknown, and later additions are less sensitive to AA%. It should be noted that some homebrewers have had mixed results when using fresh hops (poor AA approximation for bittering, sometimes grassy aroma for finishing).

High Alpha vs. Low Alpha

Will high alpha acid hops contribute the same type of bitterness as low alpha acid hops? The short answer is: probably not. The longer answer has to do with the oils and resins in the hops. As previously stated, hops bring much more to beer than bittering. There are different qualities of bittering and many respected brewers agree that a cleaner, smoother bitter can be attained by using an equal number of IBUs from a low alpha hop. To quote George Fix: "I have always had a strong preference for low alpha aroma hops, even for early additions for bittering. I find that they give (if fresh!) a clean and mellow bitter, which contrasts with the crude effects I pick up from high alphas." According to Fix, Narziss et al cited the ratio of the hop oils alpha-humulene/myrcene as providing a refined flavor, with higher ratios (> 1.5) providing a positive effect. Fix followed this up with research on the hop resins, and showed that hops with < 30% cohumulone (as a percent of alpha acids) were preferred. The correlation between the two (oils vs. resins) has not been shown, but as in all areas where human perception is involved, proof is difficult. The bottom line: bitterness is not all the same.

Hop Varieties and How to Use Them

DISCLAIMER: Hop substitutes should generally be thought of as "last resort" options. Some of them work better than others, and of course, the individual brewer must decide which substitutes are best. No attempt was made here to label "good" and "not-so-good" substitutes, because the opinions vary wildly.

Aroma Hops

The following hops are generally considered aroma hops although in recent years they have started to gain a following in the homebrew community for bittering as well:

Name:         CASCADE
Grown:        US
Profile:      strong spicy, floral, citrus (especially grapefruit) aroma
Typical use:  bittering, finishing, dry hopping for American style ales
Example:      Sierra Nevada Pale Ale, Anchor Liberty Ale & Old Foghorn
AA Range:     4.5 - 8%
Substitute:   Centennial

Name:         CHALLENGER
Grown:        UK (Northern Brewer heritage)
Profile:      spicy aroma, fruity flavor
Typical use:  dual purpose, aroma and bittering, blends well with other hops
Example:      ???
AA Range:     6.5 - 8.5%
Substitute:   ???

Name:         CRYSTAL (CFJ-HALLERTAU)
Grown:        US
Profile:      mild, pleasant, slightly spicy
Typical use:  aroma/finishing/flavoring
Example:      ???
AA Range:     2 - 5%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Hallertauer Hersbrucker, Mount Hood,
              Liberty.

Name:         EAST KENT GOLDINGS
Grown:        UK
Profile:      spicy/floral, earthy, rounded, very mild aroma;
              spicy (candy-like?) flavor
Typical use:  bittering, finishing, dry hopping for British ales
Example:      Samuel Smith's Pale Ale, Fuller's ESB
AA Range:     4.5 - 7%
Substitute:   BC Goldings, Target

Name:         ULTRA (was EXPERIMENTAL 21484)
Grown:        US
Profile:      fine aroma hop
Typical use:  finishing for German style lagers
Example:      None
AA Range:     3 - 6%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh

Name:         FUGGLES
Grown:        UK, US, and other areas
Profile:      mild, soft, grassy, floral aroma
Typical use:  finishing / dry hopping for all ales, dark lagers
Example:      Samuel Smith's Pale Ale, Old Peculier, Thomas Hardy's Ale
AA Range:     3.5 - 5.5%
Substitute:   East Kent Goldings, Willamette

Name:         HALLERTAUER HERSBRUCKER
Grown:        Germany
Profile:      pleasant, spicy/mild, noble, earthy aroma
Typical use:  finishing for German style lagers
Example:      Wheathook Wheaten Ale
AA Range:     2.5 - 5%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Mt. Hood, Liberty, Crystal,
              NZ Hallertau Aroma

Name:         HALLERTAUER MITTELFRUEH
Grown:        Germany
Profile:      pleasant, spicy, noble, mild herbal aroma
Typical use:  finishing for German style lagers
Example:      Sam Adams Boston Lager, Sam Adams Boston Lightship
AA Range:     3 - 5%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Hersbrucker, Mt. Hood, Liberty, Crystal,
              NZ Hallertau Aroma

Name:         LIBERTY
Grown:        US
Profile:      fine, very mild aroma
Typical use:  finishing for German style lagers
Example:      Pete's Wicked Lager
AA Range:     2.5 - 5%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Hallertauer Hersbrucker, Mt. Hood,
              Crystal

Name:         LUBLIN
Grown:        Poland
Profile:      Reported to be a substitute for noble varieties, in fact is
              said to be Saaz grown in Poland.
Typical use:  aroma/finishing
Example:      ???
AA Range:     2 - 4%
Substitute:   Saaz, Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Hallertauer Hersbrucker,
              Tettnang, Mount Hood, Liberty, Crystal.

Name:         MT. HOOD
Grown:        US
Profile:      mild, clean aroma
Typical use:  finishing for German style lagers
Example:      Anderson Valley High Rollers Wheat Beer, Portland Ale
AA Range:     3.5 - 8%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Hallertauer Hersbrucker, Liberty,
              Tettnang

Name:         NZ HALLERTAU AROMA (an organic version also exists)
Grown:        New Zealand
Profile:      Said to be a replica of German Hallertauer Mittelfrueh
Typical use:  fine aroma hopping
Example:      Coors, Coors Light
AA Range:     6 - 8%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Hallertauer Hersbrucker, Tettnang,
              Crystal

Name:         PROGRESS
Grown:        UK (Whitbred Goldings heritage)
Profile:      similar to Fuggles, but slightly sweeter
Typical use:  bittering and aroma for British ales
Example:      ???
AA Range:     5.0 - 7.5%
Substitute:   Fuggles

Name:         SAAZ
Grown:        Czechoslovakia
Profile:      delicate, mild, floral aroma
Typical use:  finishing for Bohemian style lagers
Example:      Pilsener Urquell
AA Range:     2 - 5%
Substitute:   Tettnang (many would claim there is NO substitute)

Name:         SPALT
Grown:        Germany/US
Profile:      mild, pleasant, slightly spicy
Typical use:  aroma/finishing/flavoring, some bittering
Example:      Common in Dusseldorf Altbiers
AA Range:     3 - 6%
Substitute:   Saaz, Tettnang

Name:         STRISSELSPALT
Grown:        France -- Alsace area
Profile:      medium intensity, pleasant, similar to Hersbrucker
Typical use:  aroma/finishing
Example:      ???
AA Range:     3 - 5%
Substitute:   Hersbrucker, German Spalt

Name:         STYRIAN GOLDINGS
Grown:        Yugoslavia (seedless Fuggles grown in Yugoslavia),
              also grown in US
Profile:      similar to Fuggles
Typical use:  bittering/finishing/dry hopping for a wide variety of beers,
              popular in Europe, especially UK
Example:      Ind Coope's Burton Ale, Timothy Taylor's Landlord
AA Range:     4.5 - 7
Substitute:   Fuggles, Willamette

Name:         TETTNANG
Grown:        Germany, US
Profile:      fine, spicy aroma
Typical use:  finishing for German style beers
Example:      Gulpener Pilsener, Sam Adams Octoberfest, Anderson Valley ESB
AA Range:     3 - 6%
Substitute:   Saaz, Spalt

Name:         WILLAMETTE
Grown:        US
Profile:      mild, spicy, grassy, floral aroma
Typical use:  finishing and dry hopping for American / British ales
Example:      Sierra Nevada Porter, Ballard Bitter, Anderson Valley Boont Amber
AA Range:     4 - 7%
Substitute:   Fuggles

Bittering Hops

The following hops are generally considered bittering hops, but some aroma applications have been noted (note that the examples given may not enlighten the taster as much as the aroma hops in the previous section):

Name:         BREWER'S GOLD
Grown:        UK, US
Profile:      poor aroma;
              sharp bittering hop
Typical use:  bittering for ales
Example:      Pete's Wicked Ale
AA Range:     8 - 9%
Substitute:   Bullion

Name:         BULLION
Grown:        UK (maybe discontinued), US
Profile:      poor aroma;
              sharp bittering and blackcurrant flavor when used in the boil
Typical use:  bittering hop for British ales, perhaps some finishing
Example:      ??? (Guinness Extra Stout and SSWW - not confirmed)
AA Range:     8 - 11%
Substitute:   Brewer's Gold, Pacific Gem

Name:         CENTENNIAL
Grown:        US
Profile:      spicy, floral, citrus aroma;
              clean bittering hop (Super Cascade?)
Typical use:  general purpose bittering, aroma, some dry hopping
Example:      Sierra Nevada Celebration Ale, Sierra Nevada Bigfoot Ale
AA Range:     9 - 11.5%
Substitute:   Cascade

Name:         CHINOOK
Grown:        US
Profile:      heavy spicy aroma;
              strong versatile bittering hop
Typical use:  bittering
Example:      Sierra Nevada Celebration Ale, Sierra Nevada Stout
AA Range:     12 - 14%
Substitute:   Galena, Eroica, Nugget, Bullion

Name:         CLUSTER
Grown:        US, Australia
Profile:      poor, sharp aroma;
              sharp bittering hop
Typical use:  general purpose bittering (Aussie version used as finishing hop)
Example:      Winterhook Christmas Ale
AA Range:     5.5 - 8.5%
Substitute:   Galena, Cascade, Eroica

Name:         EROICA
Grown:        US
Profile:      clean bittering hop
Typical use:  general purpose bittering
Example:      Ballard Bitter, Blackhook Porter, Anderson Valley Boont Amber
AA Range:     12 - 14%
Substitute:   Northern Brewer, Galena

Name:         GALENA
Grown:        US
Profile:      strong, clean bittering hop
Typical use:  general purpose bittering
Example:      Catamount Porter, Devil's Mountain Railroad Ale
AA Range:     12 - 14%
Substitute:   Northern Brewer, Eroica, Cluster

Name:         NORTHERN BREWER
Grown:        UK, US, Germany (called Hallertauer NB), and other areas
              (growing region affects profile greatly)
Profile:      fine, fragrant aroma;
              dry, clean bittering hop
Typical use:  bittering and finishing for a wide variety of beers
Example:      Old Peculier(bittering), Anchor Liberty(bittering),
              Anchor Steam(bittering, flavoring, aroma)
AA Range:     7 - 10%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, Hallertauer Hersbrucker

Name:         NUGGET
Grown:        US
Profile:      heavy, spicy, herbal aroma;
              strong bittering hop
Typical use:  strong bittering, some aroma uses
Example:      Sierra Nevada Porter & Bigfoot Ale, Anderson Valley ESB
AA Range:     12 - 14%
Substitute:   Chinook

Name:         PERLE
Grown:        Germany, US
Profile:      pleasant aroma;
              slightly spicy, almost minty bittering hop
Typical use:  general purpose bittering for all lagers except pilsener
Example:      Sierra Nevada Pale Ale, Summerfest, and Pale Bock
AA Range:     7 - 9.5%
Substitute:   Hallertauer Mittelfrueh, NZ Hallertau Aroma

Name:         PRIDE OF RINGWOOD
Grown:        Australia
Profile:      citric aroma;
              clean bittering hop
Typical use:  general purpose bittering
Example:      Foster's Lager, Victoria Bitter, Coopers Sparkling Ale
AA Range:     9 - 11%
Substitute:   ???

Hard to Find Hops

The following hops are relatively rare. In fact, they are rare enough that I haven't found much useful information on them, but they are included here for completeness.

Name:         GREEN BULLET
Grown:        New Zealand
Profile:      ???
Typical use:  Bittering and aroma in lagers, even pilseners
Example:      ???
AA Range:     8 - 12%
Substitute:   Styrian Goldings

Name:         NORTHDOWN
Grown:        Ireland
Profile:      good flavor and aroma, blends well with other UK types
Typical use:  all purpose ale hop
Example:      Guinness
AA Range:     7.2 - 9%
Substitute:   Target, Northern Brewer

Name:         PACIFIC GEM
Grown:        New Zealand
Profile:      delicate black currant/floral nose
Typical use:  Strong Bittering, but also some aroma applications
Example:      ???
AA Range:     14%+
Substitute:   Bullion?

Name:         SOUTHERN CROSS
Grown:        New Zealand
Profile:      ???
Typical use:  Strong Bittering and fine aroma qualities
Example:      ???
AA Range:     11-12%
Substitute:   ???

Name:         STICKLEBRACT
Grown:        New Zealand
Profile:      Said to be comparable to European Northern Brewer
Typical use:  Strong Bittering as well as aroma uses
Example:      ???
AA Range:     11 - 13%
Substitute:   Northern Brewer

Name:         SUPER ALPHA
Grown:        New Zealand
Profile:      ???
Typical use:  bittering and aroma applications
Example:      Steinlager, Hahn Premium
AA Range:     10 - 13%
Substitute:   ???

Name:         TARGET
Grown:        UK
Profile:      accounts for 40% of UK hop production
Typical use:  mostly used for bittering, some aroma potential
Example:      Young's Special London Ale
AA Range:     10.5 - 12.5%
Substitute:   Northdown, Progress

Contributors

Glenn Anderson ([email protected])
Scott Barrett ([email protected])
Jeremy Bergsman ([email protected])
Jim Busch ([email protected])
Nick Cuccia ([email protected])
John DeCarlo ([email protected])
David Draper ([email protected])
Alan Edwards ([email protected])
George Fix ([email protected])
Bill Flowers ([email protected])
Jeff Frane ([email protected])
Mark Garetz ([email protected])
Russ Gelinas ([email protected])
Mark Kellums ([email protected])
Al Korzonas ([email protected])
Rick Larson ([email protected])
Don Leonard ([email protected])
John Palmer (palmer#d#[email protected])
Bob Regent ([email protected])
Peter Soper (not online?)
Spencer Thomas ([email protected])
Glenn Tinseth ([email protected])
Rich Webb ([email protected])
Patrick Weix ([email protected])
Carl West ([email protected])
Ed Westemeier ([email protected])
Dave Wiley ([email protected])
Gene Zimmerman ([email protected])

Business catalogs referenced

Just Hops--Mount Zion IL
HopTech--Danville, CA
Hopunion USA--Yakima, WA

ALTBIER

Düsseldorf Altbier

German ale associated with the city of Düsseldorf. "Alt" is the German word for old. The Alt style uses a top-fermenting ale yeast, but then is cold-aged. Lacks hop aroma, low hop flavor but has medium to high bitterness, especially in the finish. Restrained fruitiness, dry, clean, bittersweet flavor. Rounded maltiness that is medium to high but not overpowering. Light to medium body. Cleaner, smoother palate, less fruitiness, less yeastiness and less acidity than a classic British ale. Very low diacetyl is OK. The color is bronze to dark brown.
Commercial examples: Widmer, Zum Uerige.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 40 - 65; SRM: 10 - 19.

Sticke

This is a form of Altbier that the brewpubs of Düsseldorf brew once or twice a year for their loyal patrons. It is released without much advertisement, hence the word "sticke" which means "secret" in German. Sticke has a higher starting gravity then the traditional, resulting in a stronger, maltier more robust version. It is often dryhopped, creating low to medium hop aroma and low to medium hop flavor. Hop bitterness is on the high end.
Commercial examples: Zum Uerige Sticke, Latzenbier.
OG: 1045-1055; Alcohol: 5 - 6%; IBU's: 45 - 55; SRM: 11 - 19.

Muenster Altbier

A light, pale, less bitter version of Altbier. A significant portion of wheat is used which adds a wheaty flavor. Low to medium malt flavor. No hop aroma, low hop flavor. Hop bitterness is low. Pale to light amber in color. Some examples have a lactic sourness.
Commercial examples: Pinkus Mueller, Otter Creek Helles Alt.
O.G.: 1.040 -1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 -5.5%; IBU's: 12 - 25; SRM: 3 - 8

Northern German Altbier

Lighter, less robust and less bitter than Düsseldorf Altbier. Medium malt flavor. No hop aroma, low hop flavor. Hop bitterness is low to medium, but usually in the medium range. Amber to brown in color. Most Alts produced in countries other then Germany are of this style. Some ales called Amber are actually in this Alt style.
Commercial examples: DAB Dark, Broyhan Alt, Alaskan Amber, Grolsch Autumn Amber, Kirin's Alt, Sapporo Alt, Harpoon Alt, New Ulm Schmaltz Alt.
O.G.: 1.040 -1.057; Alcohol: 4.5 -5.5%; IBU's: 25 - 40; SRM: 8 - 15

AMERICAN LAGERS

American Diet/Light

In the US, the legal meaning for this is a beer with 1/3 less calories then regular beer. In most commercial brands, enzymes are added to break down more sugar into alcohol. Another method is to brew a beer with 1/3 less malt. Low in body, light beer also has low or no malt taste and is effervescent. Hop bitterness is usually below the threshold of taste and no flavor or aroma is detected. No fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Light DMS flavor and aroma OK. Very pale to golden color.
Commercial examples: Miller Lite, Coors Light, Bud Light, Stroh's Light.
OG: 1.024 - 1.035; Alcohol: 2.5 - 4.5%; IBU's: 5 - 15; SRM: 2 - 4.

American Standard

The standard American, Canadian, Japanese, and Australian beer style. Brewed with 25 to 40% rice, corn and/or wheat. This style runs the gamut from sweet to dry. Lightly hopped, light-bodied and effervescent. This style has low malt aroma and flavor. Hop bitterness is barely noticeable with very low flavor and aroma. No fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Light DMS flavor and aroma OK. Light acetaldehyde aroma OK. Pale straw to deep gold.
Commercial examples: Budweiser, Coors, Stroh's, Corona, Fosters, Molson Golden, Miller High Life, Moosehead.
O.G.: 1.035 - 1.045; Alcohol: 3.5 - 5%; IBU's: 5 - 17; SRM: 2 - 6.

American Premium

The profile for this style is very similar to that of the American standard style, except that there are usually fewer adjuncts or it is all-malt. The body is light, with low malt flavor and aroma. Bitterness is low to medium from American hops, but generally the hops are barely detectable. Low hop flavor and aroma is OK. No fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Light DMS flavor and aroma OK. Color is very pale to deep gold.
Commercial examples: Michelob, Henry Weinhard's Private Reserve, Red Dog, Coors Herman Joseph's, Coor's Extra Gold.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5%; IBU's: 13 - 23; SRM: 2 - 7.

American Classic

This is a style of lager that all but died out during prohibition. It was found that American six-row barley had excessive protein levels, so 20% corn (or rice) was usually added along with the malt to dilute the protein. The limited amount of adjuncts does very little to change the malt flavor. It gives the beer a slight sweetness that is usually offset by good hop levels which are light to medium in flavor, aroma and bitterness. It has medium to high malt flavor and aroma. Body is medium to as full as a light colored lager can be. No fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Light DMS flavor and aroma should be apparent but not overpowering. Color is light gold to deep gold. The style is starting to make a comeback with the American micro-brewery and homebrew movement.
Commercial example: None.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.070; Alcohol: 5 - 6%; IBU's: 25 - 40; SRM: 3 - 6.

American Dark

Colored versions of American standard or premium with little or no dark malts used. Color can be artificially derived from the addition of caramel syrup. Deep copper to dark brown. Light to medium body. Low bitterness. Low malt aroma and/or flavor is OK. Low hop aroma and/or flavor is OK. Effervescent. No fruitiness or esters. Very low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Henry Weinhard's Special Dark Reserve, Michelob Classic Dark.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4 - 5.5%; IBU's: 14 - 20; SRM: 10 - 20.

American Malt Liquor

Roughly similar to other American lagers but higher in alcohol. The name "malt liquor" is a designation based on the fact that these brews quite often exceed the legal alcohol level defined for beers by some states. Usually very pale in color although some amber colored versions do exist. Light to no hop bitterness, flavor and/or aroma. Light DMS flavor and aroma should be apparent but not overpowering.
Commercial examples: Molson Brador, Colt 45.
O.G.: 1.048 - 1.064; Alcohol: 5 - 8%; IBU's: 5 - 22; SRM: 1 - 8.

BARLEY WINE

The name given to any top-fermented beer of unusually high, wine-like alcohol content. The richest and strongest of British ales. Alcoholic, malty, heavy and full-bodied, usually balanced with a high rate of hop bitterness and low aroma, both of which may diminish during aging. The aroma includes esters, and there can be low to medium diacetyl. American versions of Barley Wine tend to have more hop aroma then the traditional English versions and can reach high hop aroma. May possess a residual flavor of unfermented sugar. Well aged examples may also show oxidative flavors. Barley Wines are usually darker (copper to medium brown) then Strong Ales though there are some golden versions. Traditionally, they were matured in the cask, which was rolled round the brewery yard once a week to rouse the yeast in its secondary fermentation. The commercial brewers do not use wine yeast. The effect of extremely high gravitates on a top-fermenting yeast can make for a very estery, winy-tasting brew. Barley wines often have little head retention.
Commercial examples: Goldie, Gold Label, Fuller's Golden Pride, Old Foghorn, Bass No. 1 Barley Wine, Big Foot, Young's Old Nick.
O.G.: 1.090 - 1.120; Alcohol: 8.4 - 12%; IBU's: 50 - 100; SRM: 6 - 22.

BELGIAN ALES

Belgian Pale Ale

The pale ales of Belgium span a broad spectrum of characteristics. They share the general characteristics of the English pale ales, however, they are more aromatic and spicy in both malt and yeast character. These beers may be called spècials belges, or just belges, in the French-speaking regions of Belgium. They are golden to copper in color. These ales may include candy sugar or other aromatics. They are light to medium in body, with low to medium malt aroma, and usually have low carbonation. Fruity, spicy and soft. Slight acidity OK. No diacetyl. Low caramel or toasted malt flavor OK. Hop character is usually medium though the range can reach high bitterness.
Commercial examples: De Koninck, Op-Ale, Vieux Temps, Horse Ale, Ginder Ale, Palm, Spèciale Palm, Dobbel Palm, Aerts 1900, Spèciale Aerts, Ster Ale, Fat Tire.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.054; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 20 - 40; SRM: 3.5 - 12.

Flemish Brown Ale (Oud Bruins)

Blend of slight vinegarlike or lactic sourness, spicy, dry, richness of brown malts and fruitiness of ale. Sweet-and-sour character with the sweetness coming from the addition of sugar to sweeten the beer prior to pasteurization. Very complex caramel/nutty/slight chocolate malt character, with flavors sometimes reminiscent of olives, raisins and spices. Complex combinations of malts; water high in sodium bicarbonate; long boiling times, creating a hint of caramelization. Multistrain yeast pitching, sometimes with a lactic character; and the blending of "young" and "old" beers, make for a truly teasing style. No diacetyl. There is no hop aroma and low to medium bitterness. Low roasted malt character is OK. Deep copper to brown.
Commercial examples: Liefmans Oud Bruin, Felix, Cnudde, Dobbelen Bruinen, Oudenaards, Ichtegems Bruin, Bruynen.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4 - 6.5%; IBU's: 15 - 25; SRM: 10 - 18.

Belgian Red Ale

A sharp and sour red beer of light to medium body, it contains up to twenty strains of yeast. The taste is tart with a wide range of fruitiness. The red color comes, in part, from the use of Vienna malt, but also is derived from aging in the brewery's uncoated oak tuns, which also creates the flavors of caramels, tannins and acidity. This is not a hoppy beer. Very refreshing.
Commercial examples: Rodenbach, Rodenbach Grand Cru, Ouden Tripel, Petrus, Paulus, Bacchus, Pandoer, La Duchesse de Bourgogne, Vlaamse Bourgogne.
O.G.: 1.052 - 1.056; Alcohol: 5.5 - 6%; IBU's: 10 - 25; SRM: 10 - 18.

Saison

Brewed in France and Belgium during the spring for the summer. It is often only 50% attenuated (fermented). Fermentation is inhibited by the use of multiple strains of yeast that work quickly but not thoroughly. Hard water may have helped provide the body, mouth-feel and extraction of flavors from the grains. Brewed predominantly from pale malt, gaining color through a lengthy boil. Sometimes a small portion of spelt (a variety of wheat) , or raw oats or raw rice was used. Fruity with a pungent sourness and hop aroma, they are often dry-hopped. Low malt aroma. The style is crisp, tart, and refreshing. Distinctively bitter but not assertive. Bottled-conditioned with additional yeast added to the bottle. The profile includes a thick, dense, rocky head on a fairly well-carbonated beer with a palate of some tart, citric notes. Light to medium body. Slight acidity and low diacetyl are OK.
Commercial examples: Saison Dupont, Saison Silly, Saison Enghien, Saison Regal, Saison de Pipaix, Saison 1900.
O.G.: 1.048 - 1.080; Alcohol: 5.5 - 7.5%; IBU's: 20 - 40; SRM: 3.5 - 10.

Belgian Strong Golden Ales

References to the devil are often a trademark of these beers. These beers are pale to golden in color. The light color and relatively light body for a beer of this OG are the results of very pale malt and judicious additions of refined candi sugar. Full of fruity, hoppy, alcoholic complexity. Can be vinous. Low hop flavor and aroma. Top-fermented and cold-conditioned. Usually very effervescent.
Commercial examples: Duvel, Lucifer, Teutenbier, Deugniet, Sloeber, Judas.
O.G.: 1.060 - 1.070; Alcohol: 6.5 - 8%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 3 - 6.

Belgian Strong Dark Ales

There are many variations of this Belgian style which is characterized by full body and a deep burgundy to dark brown color. Rich, creamy, and usually sweet, these ales are malty but some examples do have high hop bitterness. Colored with candy sugar and not so much dark malt. Low hop flavor and aroma.
Commercial examples: Pawel Kwak, Bush (Scaldis), Liefmans Goudenband, Gouden Carolus.
O.G.: 1.070 - 1.096; Alcohol: 8 - 11%; IBU's: 25 - 50; SRM: 15 - 25.

BIÈRE DE GARDE

The name means "beer to keep," implying that it was laid down as a provision to be drawn upon during the summer. The style belongs to northern France. Typically made with several malts, this is a strong, top-fermenting, laying-down beer, quite commonly corked not capped. Bière de Garde is full gold to a dark reddish-brown. They have a medium to high malt flavor accent and a light to medium ale-like fruitiness, often with spicy notes, and are medium to strong in alcohol. Often they have a mild phenolic/clovey character and many are slightly sweet. Light to medium body, medium hop bitterness and light to medium hop flavor and aroma. It has a malty and fruity aroma. Lager yeast fermenting at higher temperatures is being employed in some examples today. Earthy, cellarlike, musty aromas OK. Light diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: 3 Monts, Jenlain, Bière des Sans Culottes, Saint Leonard, Lutèce, Pot Flamand, Pastor Ale, Cuvée des Jonquilles, Saison Saint Médard, Ch'ti Brune, Cuvée de Noël, Ch'ti Blonde, Ch'ti Ambrée, La Choulette, Brassin Robespierre, Septante 5 ("75"), Vieille Garde (Old Garde), La Bavaisienne, Réserve du Brasseur.
OG: 1.060 - 1.080; Alcohol: 5 - 8%; IBU's: 25 - 30; SRM: 8 - 15.

BOCK

Bock

A very strong lager originally from Einbeck, Germany. Strong in alcohol with a clean, smooth, malty-sweet character. The idea is to balance the big, warming, alcohol with a quenching touch. It is the water and the malt that give this style some special characteristics. The Bock beer is medium to full bodied with a malty sweetness in aroma and flavor that can include some toasted chocolate-like undertones. The dark flavors of chocolate and black malt is not appropriate for Bocks. They get their color and flavor from dark Munich malts. It is traditionally dark amber to dark brown and uses just enough "noble-type" hop flavor (low) to balance the malt. Bitterness is low. There is no fruitiness or esters and there should not be any diacetyl. No hop aroma. Until recently, German law stated that all Bocks had to have an original gravity of at least 16 Plato (1.064).
Commercial examples: Aass Bock, Frankenmuth Bock.
O.G.: 1.064 - 1.074; Alcohol: 6 - 7.5%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 20 - 30.

Helles Bock / Maibock

These Bocks possess the same characteristics as traditional Bock except for the toasted chocolate character and they are lighter in color, gold to light amber. Medium to full bodied, it has predominantly malty taste. Hop bitterness is usually low and just balances the malt sweetness. Low "noble-type" hop flavor is OK. No hop aroma, fruitiness or esters and there should not be any diacetyl.
Commercial examples: Ayinger Mai Bock, Pschorr Marzenbock, Wurzburger Maibock, Hacker-Pschorr Maibock, Einbecker Mai Ur-Bock, Augustiner Hellerbock, Fieders Bock Im Stein, Forschungs St. Jakobus Bock.
O.G.: 1.064 - 1.068; Alcohol: 6 - 7%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 4.5 - 10.

Doppelbock

Stronger version of Bock which must have a gravity of at least 18 Plato (1.072). Any beer with a starting gravity of over 18 Plato must, by German law, be called a Doppelbock regardless of any character the beer may have. Doppelbock was invented in Munich by the brothers of Saint Francis of Paula. They named their strong beer Salvator. By tradition, and in deference to Salvator, Doppelbock names end in "ator". They are very full bodied. Can be dark gold to very dark brown, very sweet or balanced with bitterness. The malty sweetness that is evident in aroma and flavor can be intense. High alcohol flavor. Some esters and fruitiness may be detectable, but are not very desirable. Low hop flavor from "noble-types" is OK. No hop aroma. There should not be any diacetyl.
Commercial examples: Paulaner's Salvator, Ayinger Celebrator, Spaten Optimator, Tucher Bajuvator, Augustiner Maximator, Kulminator EKU 28, Samichlaus, Löwenbräu Triumphator, Hacker Pschorr Animator, Old Dominion Dominator.
O.G.: 1.072 - 1.120; Alcohol: 7.5 - 14%; IBU's: 17 - 40; SRM: 6 - 30.

Eisbock

The strongest type of Bock. Very alcoholic. A Doppelbock is chilled till ice is formed. The ice is removed, leaving behind a beer with a higher concentration of alcohol. The beer is very full bodied with increased sweetness and warmth. Color is amber to black. The detectable bitterness is low.
Commercial examples: Kulmbacher Reichelbräu Eisbock Bayrisch G'frorns.
O.G.: 1.092 - 1.116; Alcohol: 10 - 14.5%; IBU's: 26 - 33; SRM: 10 - 40.

BROWN ALE

Mild Ale

Originating in coal mining areas of England and Wales, this was a low-alcohol beer designed for generous consumption by manual laborers. The name "Mild" refers to the lack of hop bitterness. The style is sweeter and paler than porter, and the body is light but as malty as is possible in a low gravity beer. Mild is gentle, with a soft body and may have a very lightly nutty flavor. The color is light amber to very dark brown, and is derived from a mixture of malts. There is very little hop flavor and aroma. The hop bitterness can be undetectable to low. Low esters.
Commercial example: McMullen's AK, Fuller's Hock, Highgate Mild, Bank's Mild.
O.G.: 1.030 - 1.038; Alcohol: 2.5 - 3.5%; IBU's: 10 - 24; SRM: 8 - 34.

English Brown Ale

A British ale that is sweeter, fuller bodied and stronger then mild ales. Some have nutty characters. Low bitterness. The style splits along geographic lines.

Southern Brown Ale

Southern brown ales are darker (dark brown and almost opaque), sweeter from the use of caramel malts and are made from lower gravities. They have a medium body. Some fruitiness and esters are present. They have low hop flavor, aroma and bitterness. Low diacetyl OK.
Commercial example: Mann's Brown Ale.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.045; Alcohol: 3.5 - 5%; IBU's: 15 - 20; SRM: 20 - 34.

Northern Brown Ale

Northern varieties, though still medium-bodied, are less sweet, dryer, have a "nuttier" malt flavor with a pale copper to dark brown color. Some esters and fruitiness are present, and the hop flavor, aroma and bitterness is usually in the low range but can approach medium. Usually have a higher alcohol level. Low diacetyl OK.
Commercial examples: High Level, Newcastle Brown Ale, Samuel Smith's Nut Brown Ale, Double Maxim, Oregon Original Nut Brown Ale.
OG.: 1.040 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4.5 - 6.5%; IBU's: 15 - 30; SRM: 12 - 30.

American Brown Ale

An adaptation by American homebrewers desiring higher alcohol and hop bittering levels to go along with the malty richness characteristic of all brown ales. A drier and more bitter style of English brown ale. Medium maltiness is present in a medium body. Hops are American varieties and can be assertive in bitterness, flavor and aroma (medium to high). Dark amber to dark brown. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Cooper Smith's Dunraven Ale, Hart's Pacific Crest Ale, Pete's Wicked Ale, Brooklyn Brown, Smuttynose Old Brown Dog.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4 - 6%; IBU's: 25 - 60; SRM: 15 - 22.

CALIFORNIA COMMON BEER (STEAM BEER)

A California creation. Legend has it that Steam Beer was named for the hiss of carbon dioxide that accompanied the tapping of a keg. The Anchor Brewing Company of San Francisco holds a registered trademark on the words "Steam Beer" meaning no other beer can use that term. This style is fermented with lager yeast at ale temperatures then aged cold. It is fermented in wide, shallow fermenters. This increases surface area and promotes cooling. It also influences yeast behavior. It is made from pale and crystal malt and usually hopped with Northern Brewer. It has the roundness and cleanness of a lager, with some of the complexity of an ale. A very light phenolic character that has been described as "thick, muddy" and "milk-like" may be detectable but should be light at most. May have a slight residual sweetness but finish very dry. The style has a medium body and a hint of toasted or caramel-like maltiness in aroma and flavor. The color is light amber to brown. Hops are medium to high in bitterness and flavor, and low to medium in aroma. Fruitiness and esters are low. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Anchor Steam, New England Atlantic Amber.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.055; Alcohol: 3 - 5%; IBU's: 35 - 45; SRM: 8 - 17.

CIDER

Cider comes from apple juice and optional ingredients such as fruits and spices and comes in a variety of styles. It can be fermented by wine, Champagne, ale, lager or wild yeast. There are several types of ciders.

Still Cider

As the name implies, not effervescent. Still cider has a light body and crisp apple flavor. Under 7% alcohol, it can be dry to sweet and is a pale yellow color. It must be clear and brilliant with an apple aroma. Sugar adjuncts may be used.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.053; Alcohol: 5.5 - 7%.

Sparkling Cider

Sparkling cider has many of the same traits as the still variety with the addition of effervescence. There should be no head or foam. It may be force-carbonated. It may be dry to sweet and light to medium in body with a crisp apple taste. The color is clear pale yellow, and must be clear and brilliant. Sugar adjuncts may be used.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.061; Alcohol: 5.5 - 8%.

New England-Style Cider

This cider has a strong, pronounced apple aroma and a higher level of alcohol, at 8 to 14%. They can be still or sparkling but are usually dry. Carbonation must be natural. Medium to full bodied with some tannins, but no "hot" alcohol taste. The color is pale to medium yellow. Adjuncts may include white and brown sugars, molasses, and/or raisins. Should use wild or wine yeasts only.
O.G.: 1.061 - 1.105; Alcohol: 8 - 14%.

Specialty Cider

At least 75% apple juice, with the remainder made from any variety of adjuncts. The alcohol content must be below 14%, but any type of yeast can be used in the production.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.105; Alcohol: 5.5 - 14%.

Scrumpy

Scrumpy is a low-grade cider traditionally made in small quantities in rural areas by farmers who use ordinary scruffy apples and crush and usually ferment in the pulp without separation of the juice. The apples are usually high in tannin. Traditional country English cider is often called scrumpy. Supposedly it traditionally had meat in it. The flavor is typically lactic, acetic, cloudy, appley and strong flavored due to the natural mix of wild yeast and bacteria which ferment the pomace. It has a higher amount of methanol in it than quality cider made from clear juice due to the action of the pectin methyl esterase on the pomace. It is usually served from casks flat and cloudy without aging at regional rural pubs, etc.

CREAM ALE

An American beer that may employ the use of either ale or lager yeast, or a combination of both. The beer is usually fermented as an ale followed by a period of cold conditioning. Can be hoppier, stronger and fruitier than standard American light lagers. Often brewed with corn or rice. The profile is light to medium body with high effervescence. The color is pale. Some low fruitiness/esters may be detectable. Hop bitterness is low to medium. Low hop aroma and flavor are OK. Light DMS flavor and aroma are OK.
Commercial examples: Genesee Cream Ale, Little Kings Cream Ale, Weinhard's Light American Ale.
O.G.: 1.044 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 - 7%; IBU's: 10 - 22; SRM: 2 - 4.

DARK LAGER

Munich Dunkel

A product of the German brewing tradition. Distinctly toasted (not burnt), nutty chocolate-like malt sweetness in aroma and flavor. The dark flavors of chocolate and black malt is not appropriate in Dunkel lagers. They get their color and flavor from dark Munich malts. Low to medium hop bitterness. Low hop flavor and aroma from "noble-types" is OK. No fruitiness or esters. Low diacetyl is OK. Low to moderate alcohol and medium body. Color ranges from dark amber to dark brown. At its most sophisticated, this style combines the dryish, nutty, chocolate notes of toasted malts with the roundness and cleanness imparted by a lager yeast. The best examples have a spicy maltiness that is neither sweet nor roasty dry.
Commercial examples: König Ludwig Dunkel, Spaten Dunkel Export, Paulaner, Franz Joseph Jubelbier, Frankenmuth Bavarian Dark, Ayinger Alt-Bairisch Dunkel, Wurzburger Hofbrau Bavarian Dark, Dinkel Acker Dark.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.058; Alcohol: 4.5 - 6%; IBU's: 16 - 30; SRM: 15 - 23.

Continental Dark

A general term for dark lagers from Europe which don't fit the Munich Dark profile. Generally a bit drier in flavor and lighter in body than the Munich style. The nutty chocolate-like malt sweetness in aroma and flavor is more subdued then in the Munich Dunkel. Low hop bitterness. Low hop flavor and aroma from "noble-types" is OK. No fruitiness or esters. Low diacetyl is OK. Color ranges from dark amber to dark brown.
Commercial examples: Beck's Dark, Grolsch Dark.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4 - 5.5%; IBU's: 16 - 25; SRM: 15 - 23.

DORTMUNDER / EXPORT

Strong pale lager from Dortmunder, Germany brewed a bit stronger than other light lagers in order to travel well for export. Characterized by more bitterness and less maltiness then Helles, but less bitterness, sweeter, stronger and more malt body than German Pilsners. Neither malt or hops are distinctive, but both are medium in flavor and in good balance with a touch of sweetness, providing a smooth yet crisply refreshing beer. The very low hop aroma and flavor that is present is from "noble-types". The water in Dortmunder is quite hard containing both calcium carbonate and sulfate. This, combined with a special malting process which results in increased enzyme power, contributes to the final unique taste. The mash for Dortmunder typically leaves sufficient unfermentables in the brew to provide that firmness of body. Alcoholic warmth can be evident. Straw to medium gold with medium body. There are no traces of diacetyl or esters.
Commercial examples: DAB Export, Thier's Export, Ritter Export, Kronen Export, Dortmunder Union Export, Newman's Brand Saratoga Lager, Yebisu.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.060; Alcohol: 5 - 6%; IBU's: 23 - 30; SRM: 4 - 6.

FRUIT BEER

Any lager and ale with fruit or fruit juice in it for flavor, color and/or aroma. Fruit was once a common seasoning in beer, especially before hops became universally used. The quenching quality of fruit beers makes them very well suited to hot summers. Cherries and raspberries are the most popular additives. Raspberry Wheat Beer, Cherry Stout, Blueberry Ale, and Lemon Lager are but a few of the fruit beer styles made. The particular fruit qualities of the beer should be distinctive in color, flavor and aroma, yet harmonious with the total flavor profile. Body, color, hop character and strength can very greatly. If the base beer is a classic-style, the original style should come through in aroma and flavor. The fruit should complement the original style and not overpower it.
Commercial examples: Bar Harbor Blueberry Ale, Oregon Original Raspberry Wheat, Saranac Mountain Berry Ale, Pete's Wicked Summer Brew, Samuel Adams Cherry Wheat, Samuel Adams Cranberry Lambic, Boston Beer Works Blueberry Ale.
O.G.: 1.030 - 1.110; Alcohol: 2.5 - 12%; IBU's: 5 - 70; SRM: 5 - 50.

GOLDEN ALE

Golden Ale

In the mid-to-late 1800's, American brewers were making golden lagers that were lightened in body and flavor by reducing the traditional barley-malt content and using cheaper, more readily available materials such as corn and rice. In response, the ale-brewers gave a similar treatment to their products. Today, Golden Ales still tend to be very similar to an American Standard Lager but perhaps with a little more hop flavor. Most of the Mega-Brewed Canadian Ales are of this style. Brewed with 25 to 40% rice or corn. This style runs the gamut from sweet to dry. Lightly hopped, light-bodied and effervescent. This style has low malt aroma and flavor. Hop bitterness is barely noticeable with low flavor and aroma. Very little fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Light DMS flavor and aroma OK. Pale straw to deep gold.
Commercial examples: Labatt's 50/50.
O.G.: 1.035 - 1.045; Alcohol: 3.5 - 5%; IBU's: 5 - 20; SRM: 2 - 6.

Blonde Ale

This is the type of Golden Ale being brewed by the microbreweries and brewpubs. It is usually an all-malt brew as opposed to the Golden Ale. It is likely to have a pleasant hop bouquet, a soft, lightly malty palate, and some fruitiness. It has an apparent light to medium malt aroma and flavor but should not have a syrupy flavor. They are usually balanced with light to medium hop bitterness though the accent should remain with the malt. The bitterness may come out more in the aftertaste creating a very dry sensation. Hop aroma may be medium to non-existent. There are a few versions of this style with very restrained use of hops, making the beer sweet in character. Fruitiness may be light to medium. Light diacetyl and DMS is OK.
Commercial examples: Sea Dog Windjammer, Mill City Spring Fever Blonde Ale, Catamount Gold, Goose Island Blonde Ale.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.060; Alcohol: 4 - 6.5%; IBU's: 15 - 33; SRM: 4 - 7.

HELLES

Mildly hopped, malty beer from Munich, Germany. The medium malt sweetness, often described as almost a caramel, is the mark of this beer. Part of the malty flavor comes from the unique Munich style of malting which involves "curing" the malt at temperatures of 212 to 225 °F. The medium body is a bit heavier than a Bohemian pils due to being less attenuated then a pils. Pleasingly low bitterness that does not linger at all. The very low hop aroma and flavor, if present, are from "noble-types". No fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Color is very pale yellow to golden.
Commercial Examples: Altenmunster, Ayinger Jahrhundert, Lowenbrau (Munich) Helles, Augustiner Helles, Spaten Helles, Paulaner Helles, Hacker-Pschorr Helles.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 18 - 25; SRM: 2 - 5.

HERB BEER

Any lager or ale with unusual herbs in it for aroma, flavor and/or color. Herbs and spices were once common seasonings in beer, especially before hops became universally used. Commonly used spices include marjoram, cinnamon, garlic, peppers, spruce, juniper, cloves, anise, nutmeg, coriander, caraway, ginger, etc.. Body, color, hop character and strength can very greatly. If the base beer is a classic-style, the original style should come through in aroma and flavor. The spices should complement the original style and not overpower it.
Commercial Examples: Harpoon Winter Warmer, Ed's Chili Beer, New England Brewing Co. Holiday Ale, Anchor Our Special Ale.
O.G.: 1.030 - 1.110; Alcohol: 2.5 - 12%; IBU's: 5 - 70; SRM: 5 - 50.

IRISH ALE

Malt-accented ales, often with a buttery note, rounded, and with a soft but notable fruitiness and reddish tinge. This style was more than likely influenced by the success of some malty, but tawnier, Scottish brews. During the 1960's, the last independent ale brewery in Ireland closed. Today all ale breweries are owned by Guinness. Pale ale malt is the main ingredient, with crystal malt and roasted barley also being used. In today's Irish ales, corn has found its way in. In the United States, lager yeast is used in most commercial examples and the beers are far more highly carbonated than typical Irish Ales. Very light hop aroma and flavor is OK. Hop bitterness is usually low.
Commercial Examples: Phoenix Beer, George Killian's Irish Red, Macardle Ale, Michael Shea's Irish Amber, McNally's Extra, Smithwick's Ale, Kilkenny Irish Beer, Kilkenny Strong, Magic Hat Ale.
O.G.: 1.036 - 1.064; Alcohol: 4 - 7%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 7 - 14.

KÖLSCH

Technically, this style can only be brewed in the area of Köln (Cologne), Germany. The Kölsch Convention, signed in 1985, protects the definition of Kölsch and designates the shape of a glass and the region in which the beer may be produced. Kölsch is a light to dark gold beer with a light to medium body. Light, fruity, acidic, wine like brew. Some are dryish others are slightly sweet. One distinctive note of the better Koelsches is that they have a very grainy nose, almost like the smell of spent grain. Low hop flavor and aroma and low to medium bitterness. Has a soft palate and a delicate finish that can be dry or sweet. Can be as pale as a Pilsner, but with a light fruitiness of an ale. Kölsch is noted for its delicacy rather than for any robust distinctiveness. Kölsch has a conventional gravity and strength, a fine bead, and is clean-tasting (all-malt), very well attenuated, soft and drinkable, only faintly fruity (often in the aroma and the beginning of the palate), with a slight acidity and a restrained but definite hoppy dryness, often slightly herbal-tasting in the finish. Can use ale or lager yeast or both. Sometimes up to 15% wheat is used to give added complexity to the fruitiness, to provide paleness of color, and to enhance head-retention and lacework. Bottle conditioned examples may be called "wiess".
Commercial Examples: Küppers, Früh, Sion, Gaffel Kölsch, Muhler, Gilden, Dom Kölsch, Garde, Gereons, Kurfursten, Reissdorf, Sester, Zunft, Long Trail Kölsch.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.048; Alcohol: 4 - 5%; IBU's: 16 - 30; SRM: 3.5 - 6.

LAMBIC (LAMBIK or LAMBIEK)

Lambic (Lambik or Lambiek)

A sour wheat beer made from the wild yeasts of the Senne Valley in Belgium, a region south and west of Brussels. The wort will sit overnight, exposed to the outside air so that it can be visited by the wild yeasts. The beer will spend the next three years in wooden barrels, undergoing different stages of fermentation. Over 70 microorganisms are involved in fermenting Lambic beers. Brettanomyces is the type of yeast that gives these beers their leathery, horse-blanket flavors and aromas. Four oxidative yeast strains give Lambics sherry-like flavors. The proportion of wheat to be used in Lambic, and the use of spontaneous fermentation, are set by a Royal Decree of 1965. Lambic and Gueuze are protected as exclusively Belgian terms under a European Community ordinance of 1992. 30 to 40% unmalted wheat is used. The unmalted wheat produces a milky-white mash that requires a boil of three hours or longer. Aged hops are also used but they create no hop flavor or aroma. Assertive hop flavors do not blend well with the tart, sour characteristics of Lambic beers. The hop bitterness can be undetectable to very low. Pungently sour, almost still, earthy, "horsey", and "mousy" aromas, fruity complexity including rhubarb-like flavors, peculiarly aromatic and aged for years. Some acetic character is acceptable, but excessive amounts are undesirable. Light to medium bodied. "Young" Lambic or vos (less then 1 year old) has a hazy, rusty color. It can be quite sharp and lactic. "Old" Lambic (2 or 3 years old) becomes clearer, pinkish and more complex. Basically, color is light gold to amber. Unblended Lambic is hard to find.
Commercial examples: Boon Lambic, Cantillon Lambic, Girardin's Unblended Lambic.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.056; Alcohol: 4 - 6%; IBU's: 3 - 22; SRM: 4 - 13.

Gueuze (Geuze)

Combination of young Lambic with old Lambic to create a bottle-conditioned beer without sugar or yeast being added. A Gueuze may contain as little as 15% young Lambic, conferring freshness and life, while the older portion brings depth, length, and aroma. Noticeably sharp, very dry or mildly sweet, usually very effervescent, toasty aroma, tart, and intense sour and acidic flavor. The carbonation level may drop due to leaking cork caps. Fruity-estery, "horsey", and "mousy" aromas and light body. The hop bitterness can be undetectable to very low. Some acetic character is acceptable, but excessive amounts are undesirable. Should age in the bottle from several months to several years. Diacetyl very low. Color is light gold to amber. Some commercial examples that are available today are very sweet and are considered "Out Of Style" by many.
Commercial examples: Cantillon Gueuze, Geuze Boon, Mort Subite, De Troch Gueuze, Boon Mariage Parfait, Girardin's Classic Gueuze, Timmermans Gueuze (Sweet), Timmermans Caveau, Lindemans Gueuze (Sweet), Lindemans Fond Gueuze.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.056; Alcohol: 4 - 6%; IBU's: 3 - 23; SRM: 4 - 13.

Faro

Lambic to which sugar and sometimes caramel or molasses are added. A Faro will have a sweet, fruity and complex flavor. A true faro is a cask product, sweetened in the brewery and then sent to the cafe. There, the faro will dry out as it ages and as the sugars are eaten up. When bottled, they are pasteurized so that the sugar will not ferment. The hop bitterness can be undetectable to very low. Color is light gold to amber.
Commercial examples: Boon Faro Pertotale, Vander Linden "Double" Faro, Cantillon Faro, Lindemans Faro Lambic, Vander Linden Faro.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.056; Alcohol: 4 - 6%; IBU's: 3 - 22; SRM: 4 - 13.

Mars

A version of Faro that has been diluted with water or made from the second runnings of the mash to make everyday, easy-drinking beers. Commercially, it vanished some years ago.
Close Commercial example: Lembeek's 2%.

Kriek

Cherries are combined with young Lambic. Fermentation eats the flesh of the fruit until the stone is exposed, adding the almond notes that make Kriek especially complex. Kriek is made with small, dark, bitter cherries grown in the village of Schaarbeek, immediately north of Brussels, and to the west toward Ninove. As the Schaarbeek cherry has become harder to obtain, brewers have gravitated toward the northern variety grown in the province of Limburg, and in Germany and Denmark. This cherry is larger and possesses a less intense dryness.
Commercial examples: Lindeman's Kriek, Cantillon Kriek Lambic, Girardin's Kriek, Mort Subite Kriek.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.072; Alcohol: 4 - 7%; IBU's: 3 - 22; SRM: red.

Framboise

Raspberries are combined with young Lambic.
Commercial examples: Timmerman's Framboise, Cantillon's Rose De Gambrinus, Framboise Boon.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.072; Alcohol: 4 - 7%; IBU's: 3 - 22; SRM: red.

Peche

Peaches are combined with young Lambic.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.072; Alcohol: 4 - 7%; IBU's: 3 - 22; SRM: 4 - 15.

Cassis

Black currant is combined with young Lambic.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.072; Alcohol: 4 - 7%; IBU's: 3 - 22; SRM: 4 - 15.

MÄRZEN / OKTOBERFEST

A lager produced in Munich, Germany with a slight to strong malt sweetness, toasted malt aroma and flavor. Origin credited to the famous brewer Gabriel Sedelmayr of the Spaten Brewery in Munich. The style is an adaptation of Vienna Lager. It was found to better suit the Munich water then Vienna Lager. The body is medium. Hop bitterness, which is low to medium, may be sharp but does not linger. The balance is decidedly towards maltiness with just enough bitterness to keep the beer from tasting too sweet. Low hop flavor and aroma from "noble-type" hops is OK. No fruitiness, esters or diacetyl. Can be quite strong in alcohol. The color is amber to deep copper or light brown.
Commercial examples: Paulaner Oktoberfest, Harpoon Oktoberfest, Gosser, Spaten Ur-Marzen Oktoberfest, Ayinger Fest Marzen, Samuel Adams Octoberfest, Catamount Octoberfest.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.065; Alcohol: 4.5 - 6.5%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 7 - 14.

MEAD

Meads are produced from honey, yeast, water, and in subcategorizes, by the addition of herbs and fruits. Wine, Champagne, sherry, mead, ale or lager yeast may be used. It is likely that Mead was made even before the wheel was invented. Cave paintings have been found depicting the making of Mead. Honey is made from the nectar of flowers, and is named according to the type of blossom from which the nectar is collected by the bees. There are a few plants whose nectar is toxic to man. Rhododendron nectar has long been under suspicion in this respect. Clover is the largest single source of nectar. Mead in its matured state is very much like a good white wine, and may reach full maturity within two or three years. Mead made from stronger flavored honeys may taste unbalanced unless it is matured for perhaps as long as eight years. Meads are usually made from single-blossom honeys such as clover, acacia, orange, rose, wild-rose and rosemary. Eucalyptus blossom honey has a peculiar bitter flavor and shouldn't be used to make Mead. Some honey is light in color and some dark. With a few exceptions the darker honey is more strongly flavored. The lighter and milder honeys are usually more suitable for Mead. Good Mead demands good honey. Some Mead makers do not boil or brew their product as this has a tendency to drive off the light flavors. Instead they use sulfites to protect their product. This fact should be noted by anyone that has a problem with sulfite intake.

Traditional Mead

Very pale to deep yellow. Lighter color honey is used in dry types while darker honey is used for sweet styles. It can be dry, medium, or sweet to very sweet with a light to full body. The final gravity determines how the mead is classified: dry at 0.996-1.009, medium at 1.010-1.019, and sweet from 1.020-1.050.
Commercial example: Merrydown Mead.
O.G.: 1.090 - 1.140; Alcohol: 11 - 15%; IBU's: 0; SRM: 1 - 5.

Sparkling Traditional Mead

Sparkling mead is effervescent and can be of dry to medium sweetness. There is honey character in the flavor and aroma. Body is light to medium. No flavors other then honey. Honey is the predominate flavor and aroma. There may be some low to fruity acidity, but there should be no harsh and/or stale flavors.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.090; Alcohol: 5 - 11%; IBU's: 0; SRM: 1 - 4.

Flavored Mead

May be still or effervescent. Still types may be light to full bodied, dry to very sweet, while the sparkling examples are light to medium bodied and dry to sweet. The flavor and aroma should reflect the ingredients used, but the honey character should also be apparent. The color should represent the ingredients. There should be no harsh and/or stale flavors. Original gravities and such are basically the same as their Traditional counterpart, be it still or sparkling. For Flavored Meads, darker and stronger honeys may sometimes be preferable. Like other wines, they benefit from maturing, but they can often be drunk as young as a few months with great satisfaction and reach their maximum maturity after about two years.

Melomel

Made with fruits other than apples or grapes. Melomels utilize less honey per gallon than Mead.

Cyser

Flavored from the use of apples or apple juice. A mixture of cooking, cider and crab apples tends to produce a drink with more character than if dessert apples are used alone.

Pyment

Produced with the additions of grapes. Ferments to a higher strength then just grapes alone would.

Hippocras

A variation of Pyment that includes spices. It was named after Hippocrates and was a typical product of Greek civilization.

Methegiln

Ingredients are honey, herbs, and spices. Taken from the Welsh word Medclyglin meaning medicine. One of the problems in making Metheglin is that of obtaining a balanced flavor. A great deal of time may be required to achieve the balance. A second problem is that of hazes caused by the herbs.

Braggot or Bracket

A Braggot is typically made with most of its fermentable sugars coming from honey and 25 to 50% from malted barley. The flavor should reflect both of these ingredients. Hops may or may not be used. Original gravity is usually not over 1.070 and may go as low as 1.040.

PALE ALE / BITTER

In Britain, there are no rules as to what a brewer must name his beer. As a result many brewers use the words "Bitter" and "Pale Ale" interchangeably. Traditionally, Pale Ale was a bottled product while Bitters were in casks or kegs. Now, even this separation is no longer in use. Today, the major difference between a Pale Ale and a Bitter is the name. They are light to full-bodied, have medium to high hop bitterness with good support from the low to medium maltiness and are well-attenuated. Some are dry and others are sweet. They have medium to high hop flavor and aroma. The styles vary along geographic lines, with the northern type being maltier, stronger and usually has a lower hop bitterness, while the southern type is more aggressively hopped and carbonated. They are fruity and estery and they can have low to medium diacetyl. Low caramel character is OK. Pale ale malts are the principal grist; if crystal is used at all, it is employed with great restraint. The pale ale malts used may impart a light nuttiness to the flavor. The essential ingredient is the hearty smack of hops. Dry hopping is common, creating a fine hop aroma with malt for balance. English hops such as Fuggles and Goldings are usually used, though there are a very limited amount of examples using German hops for flavor and aroma. They are brewed with water that is extraordinarily hard. The calcium content makes for a firmness of body, while the sulfate will increase the perception of bitterness and will give the beer a long, lingering dry finish. The "Bitters" are generally available in three strengths (Ordinary, Special and Extra Special). The "Pale Ales" are usually around the ESB strength though some fall into the area of Special Bitter.

Ordinary Bitter

Mildest form of Bitter. Dark gold to medium copper-brown. Grain and malt tend to predominate over hop flavor and bitterness (although there are exceptions) with enough hop aroma to balance and add interest. Light to medium body. Low diacetyl and fruity-esters.
Commercial examples: Brakspear Ordinary Bitter, Young's Bitter, Fuller's Chiswick.
O.G.: 1.033 - 1.038; Alcohol: 3 - 3.5%; IBU's: 20 - 35; SRM: 8 - 12.

Special Bitter

Moderate strength. Similar to an ordinary bitter, but stronger and more robust with a more evident malt flavor and hop character.
Commercial examples: Sheffield Best Bitter, Theakston's Best, Fuller's London Pride, Tom Sheimo's Favourite.
O.G.: 1.038 - 1.045; Alcohol: 3.5 - 4.5%; IBU's: 28 - 46; SRM: 12 - 14.

Extra Special Bitter

A full-bodied, robust copper colored beer with a maltier, more complex flavor than either the ordinary or special bitter. Maltiness should be evident with medium to high hop bitterness, flavor and aroma.
Commercial examples: Young's Special, Adnams' Extra, Red Hook ESB, Fullers ESB, Mitchell's ESB, Theakston's XB, Belk's ESB.
O.G.: 1.046 - 1.060; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 30 - 55; SRM: 12 - 14.

Commercial examples of other various Bitters: Shepherd Neame's Masterbrew Bitter, Ind Coope Burton Ale, Marston's Pedigree, Timothy Taylor's Landlord.

English Pale Ale

If a brewery produces both a Pale Ale and a Bitter, the Pale Ale will have the higher gravity. The Pale Ale may be less obviously hoppy than the Bitter. The colors range from light to pale amber with many as deep as copper. They are light to medium body, have medium to high hop bitterness and medium hop flavor and aroma.
Commercial examples: Worthington White Shield, Bass Ale, Royal Oak, Whitbread Pale Ale.
O.G.: 1.043 - 1.056; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 20 - 40; SRM: 6 - 12.

American Pale Ale

In comparison to its English counterpart, it is slightly less malty, in the range of low to medium. It is fruity and estery with some crystal malt providing a bit of residual sweetness. A distinction of the American version is the high hopping of American varieties. Dry hopping is appropriate. Stock ale is generally in the pale ale style, and is a slightly stronger version meant for longer storage. Pale to deep amber/red/copper. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Geary's Pale Ale, Sierra Nevada Pale Ale, Shoals Pale Ale, Hopland Red Tail Ale, Red Hook Ale, Long Trail Ale, Samuel Adams Boston Ale, Carrabassett Pale Ale, Harpoon Ale.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.056; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 20 - 40; SRM: 4 - 11.

India Pale Ale

A special style of pale ale that has high hop bitterness, medium to high hop flavor and aroma and a higher alcohol content. Originally brewed in England for the long trip to India. High hop rates were used for preservation. The beers continued to ferment during the journey, coming into peak condition at arrival. The effects of this heavy hopping might not be quite as severe as it seems. Hops were not as high in alpha acids as today, and they may have been aged to reduce bitterness. An IPA should have a medium body, medium maltiness with evident alcohol, though the finest examples tend to mask the alcohol well. It can have fruity or estery notes, yet the diacetyl should be low. Often paler than that of classic British Pale Ale, being a full gold to light orange-copper/deep amber. Oak flavor from aging in oak is not appropriate in traditional IPA's, but has shown up in American versions. Traditionally, English hops such as Fuggles and Goldings were usually used, but today Willamette, Cascade and other American varieties are catching on.
Commercial examples: Ballantine's Old India Pale Ale, Sierra Nevada Celebration Ale, Anchor Liberty Ale, Harpoon IPA, Tupper's Hop Pocket, Oregon Original IPA, Sea Dog Old East India.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.070; Alcohol: 5.5 - 7%; IBU's: 30 - 60; SRM: 6 - 18.

PILSNER

Bohemian Pilsner

This beer originated in Plzen, Czechoslovakia in 1842, and quickly gained popularity in other brewing countries. Light to medium bodied and medium attenuation which leaves behind some malt body and sweetness. This beer benefits from extremely soft water. Creamy dense head and well-carbonated. Low to medium accent of rich, sweet malt in aroma and flavor. The hop bitterness is medium to high. The hop flavor and aroma from the Saaz hop is very noticeable at a level of medium to high. One key factor in Bohemian Pilsners is that the bitterness, although high, does not linger in the finish and ends rather abruptly, thanks to the very soft water. Clean, crisp, hop-spicy bitter with malty overtones. Esters and fruitiness are not appropriate in Pilsners, but, in some of the classic renditions, such as Pilsner Urquell, low diacetyl adds a complexity. The color should be light gold to medium gold.
Commercial examples: Pilsner Urquell, Budweiser Budvar, Gambrinus, Staropramen, Branik, Velké Popovice, Krušovice, Cristal.
OG: 1.044 - 1.056; Alcohol: 4 - 5.5%; IBU's: 25 - 45; SRM: 2 - 5.

German Pilsner

More bitter, drier, less malty, simpler, cleaner and from a lower extract then Bohemian Pilsner. The distinctive characteristic is the flowery, medium hop bouquet and flavor from "noble" hops and its dry finish from a more thorough fermentation. The color should be light gold to medium gold. Crisp flavor with prominent high hop bitterness. A higher level of perceived bitterness is achieved through the use of water that is harder and higher in sulfates than that of Czechoslovakia. Low to medium maltiness in aroma and flavor, but the balance is decidedly towards bitterness throughout the palate. No fruitiness or esters. Very low diacetyl is OK. Light to medium in body.
Commercial examples: Warsteiner, Becks, Aass Pilsner, Pinkus Ur-Pils, Bitburger, Radeberger-Pils, Wernesgrüner, Jever, König, Veltins, Holsten's Diat Pils.
O.G.: 1.044 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4 - 5%; IBU's: 30 - 45; SRM: 2.5 - 4.5.

Scandinavian - Dutch Pilsner

Similar to German Pilsners but with somewhat lower original gravity's, lighter palate (light body), a much lower bitterness and they are typically sweetish throughout the palate. Hop bitterness is usually low but can make it up to medium. The hop character in flavor and aroma is low and is, therefore, considerably lower. Usually paler than German Pilsners at a color of yellow to light gold. Rice or corn may be used as adjuncts.
Commercial examples: Carlsberg, Grolsch, Heineken, Brand-Up, Christoffel, Plzen.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.050; Alcohol: 3.5 - 5%; IBU's: 25 - 35; SRM: 2 - 4.

PORTER

Robust Porter

A medium to full body in a balanced beer that has a noticeably coffee-like dryness, and may have a malty sweet flavor that comes through in the finish. Chocolate and black malts add a sharp bitterness, but do so without adding roasted or charcoal notes. There can be a little roast barley character or none at all. Hop bitterness is medium to high. Hop flavor and aroma is none to medium. Fruitiness, esters and low diacetyl are OK. The color is deep brown with red hues to black. Some versions are made with lager yeast.
Commercial examples: Anchor Porter, Sierra Nevada Porter, Black Hook Porter.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.058; Alcohol: 4.5 - 6%; IBU's: 25 - 40; SRM: 25 - 35.

Brown Porter

A bit lighter than the robust, with light to medium body and generally lower in alcohol. The malt sweetness is low to medium and well-balanced with the medium hop bitterness. No strong roast barley or burnt malt character. Color is medium to dark brown with reddish tones. None to medium hop aroma and flavor. Fruitiness, esters and low diacetyl are OK. Some versions are made with lager yeast.
Commercial examples: Samuel Smith's Taddy Porter, Young's London Porter, Yuengling Porter, Stegmeter Porter, Pickwick's Porter, Essex Porter, Burton Porter, Pimlico Porter, Catamount Porter, Whitbread Porter.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 20 - 35.

RAUCHBIER

Smoked-flavored beer in the tradition of Bamberg, Germany. Basically in the Oktoberfest/Vienna style made with malts that have been dried over moist beechwood log embers to give this beer its sweet smoky aroma and flavor. The beer presents a medium to full body and a generally medium, sweet, malty flavor beneath the smoke. The color is dark amber to full brown. Hop bitterness, flavor and aroma is low to medium. Intensity of the smoke is medium to high. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Kaiserdom Rauchbier, Maisel's Rauchbier, Aecht Schlenkerla Rauchbier, Braurei Special.
O.G.: 1.048 - 1.060; Alcohol: 5 - 6%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 10 - 20.

RYE BEER

Rye bread or flour is used as the basis of kvass and similar beer-like fermented drinks that were, and sometimes still are, traditional in many parts of eastern, central and Baltic Europe. Rye, with its fruity, bitter, spicy, oily sometimes almost peppermint flavors, is the most assertively flavored cereal grain. It is not an easy grain with which to work, in that, like wheat, it has no husk. It also absorbs and retains water more than other brewing grains.
Commercial examples: Riley's Rye, Schierlinger Roggenbier, Goldroggen.

SAHTI

The traditional Estonian and Finnish brew Sahti is often made with rye or oats. One or other of these grains, or a blend of both, may comprise half the mash, the remainder being malted barley. Juniper is the traditional seasoning, although hops are also used. In the past, a proportion of raw rye was used, although the grain was malted for the finest brews. Traditionally, the brew is filtered through straw, reeds and juniper twigs, in a distinctively shaped wooden trough, called a kuurna, and baker's yeast is typically employed. It has a rusty, reddish-brown color, with a considerable haze; a relatively low, but lasting, head and carbonation (like a British cask-conditioned ale); a slightly sticky, oily, but soft body (reminiscent of a fortified wine); and a winy, spicy, smokey, almondy palate.
Commercial examples: Lammin Sahti, Sysmä Sahti, Honkajoki Sahti, Mafia Sahti.
O.G.: 1.080 - 1.100; Alcohol: 7.5 - 8.75%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 10 - 20.

SAKE (RICE WINE)

This type of Sake can be semidry to very dry. No carbonation. The color is a pale yellow to almost clear. It must be made with rice koji, rice and yeast only. Sake should be served at precisely 76 degrees F. It is said that any variation from this temperature will change the true flavor of the Sake.

Genshu Sake is a full strength Sake at 18 to 20% alcohol.
Ordinary Sake has a strength of 16 to 17% alcohol.
Nigori Sake is unfiltered and unpasteurized. It will often be cloudy and have sediment.
Ginjo Sake is made from highly polished rice, making it crystal clear and almost colorless.
Brown Rice (Genmai) Sake is made from unpolished rice and rice koji.

Sparkling Sake - This is regular sake refermented in the bottle to produce carbonation. It has about 12.5% alcohol and is primed with rice syrup and yeast. Fruits and/or herbs may be added.

SCHWARZBIER (BLACK BEER)

Judicious amounts of roasted malts so as to not impart a burnt flavor. Moderate bitterness from hops and roasted malt. Medium body with malty aroma and low sweetness in aroma and flavor. Should have a distinctive bitter-chocolate palate. Hop flavor and aroma from "noble-types" is OK. No fruitiness or esters. Low diacetyl is OK. Color is dark brown to black. This style is hard to find in the U.S.
Commercial examples: Köstritzer Schwarzbier, Kloster Schwarz-Bier, Kulmbacher Monchshof Schwarzes Pils, Sprecher Black Bavarian, Mather's Black Beer, Asahi Black Beer, Kirin Black Beer, Sapporo Black Beer, Suntory Black Beer.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.052; Alcohol: 3.5 - 5%; IBU's: 20 - 35; SRM: 25 - 40.

SCOTTISH ALE

A style of ale from Scotland. Maltier flavor and aroma, often balanced with a toasty dryness, darker colors, more full-bodied and smokier character then the English ales. Fermented at cooler temperatures than English ales and results in less fruity esters. In order to accentuate maltiness and body, the Scots sometimes ferment their beers less fully than brewers elsewhere. Color traditionally comes from very small amounts of roast barley, although malts from crystal to chocolate to black are now commonly used. The "shilling" designation is believed to be from the old method of taxing by basing the tax rate on the gravity of the beer. The style is medium to full-bodied and malt is very evident in the flavor and aroma. Some diacetyl is acceptable. Some fruitiness is acceptable, but esters should be relatively low. Hop bitterness is medium to low. Low hop flavor and aroma is acceptable. They come in several versions.

Light 60/-

The color is brown to black. Low carbonation. Very low bitterness. Very low hop flavor and aroma is acceptable. Medium maltiness. Light to medium bodied. Low to medium diacetyl is OK. Low fruitiness and esters are OK. Faint smoky character is OK.
Commercial example: Belhaven 60/-, Caledonian 60/-, Glaschu Keely Light, Maclays 60/-.
O.G.: 1.030 - 1.034; Alcohol: 3 - 3.5%; IBU's: 9 - 15; SRM: 17 - 34.

Heavy 70/-

The color is amber to dark brown. Low carbonation. Low bitterness. Very low hop flavor and aroma is acceptable. Medium to high maltiness. Medium to full bodied. Low to medium diacetyl is OK. Low fruitiness and esters are OK. Faint smoky character is OK.
Commercial example: Orkney Raven Ale, Alloa Archibald Arrol's 70/-, Belhaven 70/-, Borve Heavy Ale, Tomintoul Caillie, Caledonian 70/-, Mansfield Arms Devon Original, Vaux Lorimers Best Scotch, Maclays 70/-, Tartan Special McEwans 70/-, Harviestoun Waverley 70/-.
O.G.: 1.034 - 1.040; Alcohol: 3.5 - 4%; IBU's: 10 - 20; SRM: 10 - 19.

Export 80/-

The color is amber to dark brown. Low carbonation. Low to medium bitterness. May or may not have hop flavor or aroma. High maltiness. Medium to full bodied. Low to medium diacetyl is OK. Low to medium fruitiness and esters are OK. Faint smoky character is OK.
Commercial examples: Arrol's 80/-, Edinburgh 80/- Export Ale, McEwan's 80/-, Younger's No. 3, Orkney Dark Island, Alloa Archibald Arrols 80/-, Rose Street Auld Reekie 80/-, Belhaven 80/-, Glaschu Best Bracken, Caledonian 80/-, Mansfield Arms Devon Pride, Caledonian Golden Promise, Maclays 80/-, Harviestoun Original 80/-, Tomintoul Stag.
O.G.: 1.040 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4 - 5%; IBU's: 15 - 20; SRM: 10 - 19.

Scottish Strong Ale 90/-

In this style it is quite common for the fermentation to be roused so the yeast will stay in suspension and attenuate the beer. This is a full bodied beer with color that is deep copper to very black but not opaque. There can be medium to high diacetyl present. These beers are much less hopped than English Strong Ales. They have low to medium hop bitterness and the hop flavor and aroma is very low or absent. They are overwhelmingly malty with some kettle caramelization. Slight roasted malt qualities may be provide by the limited use of dark roasted malt or roasted barley. Faint smoky character is OK. Malt character balanced by clean alcohol flavors.
Commercial examples: Belhaven's 90/-, McEwan's Scotch Ale, Traquir House Bear Ale, Gordon Highland Scotch Ale, Caledonian Edinburgh Strong Ale, Rose Street Auld Reekie 90/-, Glaschu Double Whammy, Maclays Scotch Ale, Maclays Old Alloa Ale, Harviestoun Old Manor.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.070; Alcohol: 5 - 7%; IBU's: 25 - 35; SRM: 10 - 35.

Scottish Wee Heavy

Very strong ale, usually dark, and always sweet and full-bodied. Strong malt character with faint roasty background. Hint of smoke (as a yeast byproduct, not from smoked malt) and some diacetyl acceptable. Low esters. Clean alcohol flavor balanced by rich maltiness. Deep amber to deep brown color. Hop bitterness very subdued and no hop aroma evident.
Commercial examples: Borve Extra Strong, Harviestoun Nouveau Ale, Campbells Scotch Ale, Belhaven Fowlers Wee Heavy, McEwans Scotch Ale, Orkney Skullsplitter Ale, Traquair House Ale, Fowler's Wee Heavy, Vermont Pub & Brewery Wee Heavy.
OG: 1.070 - 1.100; Alcohol: 7 - 10.5%; IBU's: 25 - 35; SRM: 10-47

SPECIALTY BEERS

These are beers that do not fit the other descriptions. The purposeful inclusion of additives (other than fruit or herbs) combine to impart unique characteristics. Maple syrup, sorghum, honey, chocolate, pumpkin and smoke flavor can be added to create a specialty beer. The major style characteristics must still be readily recognized.
Commercial examples: Buffalo Bill's Pumpkin Ale, Pete's Wicked Honey Wheat, Vermont Pub and Brewery Smoked Porter, Samuel Adams Honey Porter, Otter Creek Brewery Hickory Switch Smoked Ale, JW Dundee's Honey Brown,
Oregon Original Honey Red.
O.G.: 1.030 - 1.110; Alcohol: 2.5 - 12%; IBU's: 0 - 100; SRM: 1 - 50.

STEINBIER (STONE BEER)

This is actually more of a method of brewing then a style but it does add a special flavor to any beer made in this method. Porous stones (graywacke, a type of sandstone) are superheated and lowered into the beer wort, causing the wort to boil. The rocks are then removed, and when the resulting beer has begun to ferment and the stones are cool, they are again lowered into the beer. The yeast ferments the strongly-flavored, caramelized sugars crystallized on the stones. The result is a delicious, rare and somewhat smoky beer. It has a smoky, treacle-toffee or butterscotch-like palate, and a long, roundish finish. The hop bitterness should be medium. The color is amber. This method of brewing was used in the time before it was possible to make large kettles from metal. This beer type has recently been revived in Germany. In 1982, Gerd Borges reintroduced Steinbier.
Commercial examples: Rauchenfels Steinbrau, Rauchenfels Steinweizen, Brimstone M.O.B. Stone.
O.G.: 1.048; Alcohol: 4.7%; IBU's: 27; SRM: 9.

STOUT

Dry Stout

Originally this was an Irish version of Porter. A rich, dry, extra-dark, black opaque ale. A proper dry stout is intensely roasty, with plenty of hop bitterness. It should be top-fermented, with the attendant fruitiness and complexity. Low to medium bodied, the distinguishing feature is the requisite roasted coffee like flavor and aroma from the use of roasted barley which is required but can be at low levels. It starts with a taste of malt and caramel and ends with a dry-roasted, bitter taste. Hop bitterness is medium to high, but malt should still dominate slightly. There may be very low to medium diacetyl. There is just enough English variety hop flavor present to offset the malt. Thus, the hop flavor is barely noticeable and there is no hop aroma. Sweet maltiness and caramel malt should character is OK. A small % of soured beer is sometimes added giving the beer an acidity/sourness that balances the dry roast flavors and high carbonate levels. Oysters have been, and still are, an ingredient in some Stouts. The practice may have originated when oyster shells were ground up and used as finings to help precipitate unwanted solids from beer. The alkaline shells also counteract the sourness in the beer. Starting gravity's are lower in Ireland, higher elsewhere.
Commercial examples: Guinness, Sierra Nevada, Sheaf Stout, Murphy's Irish Stout, Beamish Stout, Old No 38, Black Hawk Stout, Rainbow Trout Stout.
O.G.: 1.036 - 1.050; Alcohol: 3 - 5.5%; IBU's: 25 - 40; SRM: 35 +.

Foreign Stout

This is a stronger version of Dry Stout with the additional malt offset by hopping up to 60 IBU for balance. Usually brewed for 'tropical' markets. Some could be described as strong dry stouts, but others are too sweet for that designation. Around 1.060, it becomes difficult to produce a true dry stout, as the malty fullness and the fruity esters take charge. It is black to opaque and medium to full bodied. There should be no hop flavor or aroma but a slight acidity/sourness flavor is OK. Slight malt sweetness or caramel malt character and very low to medium diacetyl is OK. Low fruity-esters are OK.
Commercial example: Guinness Extra Stout, Dragon Stout, ABC Stout, Lion Stout.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.075; Alcohol: 5 - 7.5%; IBU's: 25 - 60; SRM: 35 +.

Imperial Russian Stout

Originally brewed for export to Russia. A robust and stronger version of Stout, highly hopped to create medium to high hop aroma and flavor and high hop bitterness. High gravity and hops were used to prepare these stouts for export, much as was done with India Pale Ales. Often has an intense 'burnt currant' character. Full bodied, it is dark copper to black. The high gravity leads to noticeably high esters and fruitiness. Alcoholic strength should be evident. Rich maltiness. Very low diacetyl is OK. The roastiness melds with smoky, tar-like, burnt, fruity, estery notes and alcohol flavors. There is a suggestion of cocoa, or strong coffee. The fruitiness is reminiscent of the burnt currants on the edge of a cake that has just been removed from the oven, or the Christmas pudding in Britain, heavy with dried and candied fruits. The alcohol suggests that the cocoa or coffee, pudding or cake, has been laced with spirit.
Commercial example: Samuel Smith's Imperial Stout, Grant's Imperial Stout, Courage's Imperial Russian Stout.
O.G.: 1.075 - 1.095+; Alcohol:7 - 9+%; IBU's:50 - 90+; SRM:20 - 35+.

Sweet Stout

The English version of Stout. Usually possessing a unique chocolate-caramel malt flavor. The overall character is sweet. Lacks most of the roasted barley character and hop bitterness which is on the low end. The flavor is derived from the use of chocolate malt and milk sugar (lactose). Lactose is unfermentable and hence adds sweetness to the beer. No hop flavor or aroma. Medium to full body. There may be low diacetyl detected. Sweet maltiness and caramel flavors should be evident. The color is black opaque. Often called "Farm Stout", "Milk Stout" and "Cream Stout". Most Sweet Stouts are low in alcohol, containing 3 to 3.5 percent alcohol by volume.
Commercial example: Mackeson XXX Stout, Sweetheart Stout, Watneys Cream Stout, Samuel Adams Cream Stout.
O.G.: 1.038 - 1.056; Alcohol: 3 - 6%; IBU's: 15 - 25; SRM: 35 +.

Oatmeal Stout

This beer is a variation of the sweet stout but has oatmeal added to increase the fullness of body and flavor and to make a more "nutritious" Stout. The result of this mixture is often described as firm, smooth, silky body, and a hint of nuttiness in their complex of coffee, chocolate and roast flavors. Because oats gelatinize at low temperatures, they can make mashing difficult. Hop bitterness is low. No hop flavor or aroma. Medium to full body. There may be low diacetyl detected. Sweet maltiness and caramel flavors should be evident. The color is black opaque.
Commercial example: Young's Oatmeal Stout, Lacto Milk Stout, Barney Flats Oatmeal Stout, Samuel Smith's Oatmeal Stout.
O.G.: 1.038 - 1.056; Alcohol: 3 - 6%; IBU's: 15 - 25; SRM: 35 +.

STRONG ALE / OLD ALE

Higher alcohol version of pale ale though generally not as strong or rich as a Barleywine. Often regarded as winter warmers. Old ales have a fruity character although the finish may be dry. A bit syrupy when young, but improve with up to five years of aging. Long term aging in the bottle or tun may give old ales oxidative flavors like a fine old port or Madeira wine. They are medium to full bodied, with a nutty malt sweetness, and are very estery. Usually not very thoroughly fermented, so to leave some of the sweetness, flavor and body of the malt sugars in the beer. Color is usually light amber to very dark red. Hop flavor and bitterness is medium to high, but hop aroma is low from the aging process. Alcoholic strength should be recognizable. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Theakston's Old Peculiar, Old Buzzard, Wobbly Bob, Owd Roger, Young's Winter Warmer, Old Tom, Old Jock, Old Fart, Strong Suffolk, Gale's 5X, Gale's Prize Old Ale.
O.G.: 1.055 - 1.080; Alcohol: 5.5 - 8.5%; IBU's: 30 - 50; SRM: 10 - 16.

TRAPPIST ALE (ABBEY BEER)

Only beer brewed in one of the six remaining brewing abbeys may use the term "Trappist". They are the Westmalle, Orval, Rochefort, Sint Sixtus at Westvleteren, and Chimay breweries in Belgium, and the Trappists of Schaapskooi at Koningshoeven in the Netherlands. The six Trappist abbeys produce around 20 beers. Beers brewed by regular breweries that are in the Trappist style are called abbey beers. They are strong, top-fermented, amber to copper colored, fruity, aromatic beers with a spiciness and slight acidity that sets them apart. Several have rum notes that come from the addition of dark candy sugar in the kettle. Candy sugar contributes to the beer's aroma, texture and flavor. They are all bottle conditioned, with plenty of yeast sediment. Although its hard to classify all the Trappist and Abbey ales into clear-cut subcategorizes, it is generally accepted that 3 varieties are made.

Enkel (House Brew)

The weakest of the 3 variations. It is meant for everyday consumption. The color is amber to copper with light to medium hop bitterness. Hop flavor and aroma can be medium to none. Medium body. Slight fruitiness and esters are OK. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Westvleteren 4 Dubbel, Orval, Chimay PremiFre (Capsule Rouge), Rochefort 6, Westmalle Extra.
O.G.: 1.050 - 1.070; Alcohol: 5.5 - 7%; IBU's: 15 - 25; SRM: 10 - 15.

Dubbel

Dark amber to full brown ales with a sweet malty flavor and a slightly nutty aroma that may give way to some hoppy dryness in the finish. They are very fruity/plummy in the nose and chocolate malt aroma is OK. Medium- to full-bodied. Low bitterness. Very low diacetyl is OK. Aromas and flavors are sometimes derived from unique yeast strains. Low to medium fruity-esters (especially banana) are OK. Small amounts of spices may be added.
Commercial examples: Grimbergen Dubbel, Affligem Dubbel, Rochefort 8, Chimay Cinq Cents (Capsule Blanche), Chimay Grande RTserve (Capsule Bleue), La Trappe Dubbel, Westmalle Dubbel, Westvleteren 6 Special.
O.G.: 1.070 - 1.095; Alcohol: 7 - 10%; IBU's: 20 - 25; SRM: 12 - 20.

Triple

A paler and stronger ale, brewed from pale Pilsner malts with candy sugar added to boost the O.G.. Complex aroma and palate with delicately light aromatic hop characteristics, light malt aroma and a light citric fruitiness. Medium- to full-bodied. Neutral hop/malt balance in the flavor, each being low to medium. Finish may be sweet. As with doubles, aromas and flavors are derived from unique yeast strains and small amounts of spice are sometimes added. Deep gold to brown. Alcoholic, but best examples do not taste strongly of alcohol. Spicy, phenolic-clove, banana flavors, esters are OK.
Commercial examples: Grimbergen Tripel, Mateen, Affligem Tripel, Westmalle Tripel, Rochefort 10, La Trappe Tripel, La Trappe Quadrupel, Westvleteren 8 Extra, Westvleteren 12 Abbot.
O.G.: 1.090 - 1.100; Alcohol: 9 - 10%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 7 - 18.

VIENNA

The classic amber lager style. Originally brewed in 1841 by the famous Austria brewer, Anton Dreher. It has now become rare in Austria. Reminiscent of Oktoberfest but with a less robust sweet malt character. This distinctive style owes much of its character to the method of malting. Vienna malt provides the dominant toasty flavor, aroma, and color. May have low malt sweetness on the palate but should have a fairly dry finish. Low to medium bitterness from "noble-type" hops. This beer is light to medium bodied with a reddish-amber to light brown color. Low hop flavor and aroma from "noble-type" hops put the emphasis on the malt. No fruitiness or esters. Very low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Newman's Albany Amber, Dos Equis Amber, Portland Lager, Ambier Genuine Vienna Style, Negra Modelo, Red Wolf.
O.G.: 1.046 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 - 6%; IBU's: 20 - 30; SRM: 10 - 15.

WHEAT BEERS

Weizenbier (or Weissbier)

Wheat beer of southern Germany. Light to medium bodied, lightly hopped, yeasty, highly effervescent, and suggestive of cloves and bananas. It is, above all, a summer beer. At least 50% wheat malt. Some cloudiness is acceptable in this style since a mash of wheat can add haze from protein. Fermented as an ale by unique yeast strains. Clove and slight banana character is required. Vanilla, nutmeg, smoke and cinnamon-like phenolics are permissible. A slight bubble-gum flavor may show up in fresh examples, but this flavor diminishes quickly with time. Fruity/estery character can be low to medium. Mild sourness is OK. Bitterness is low to unnoticeable. Very low hop flavor and aroma is OK. No diacetyl. Light straw to amber.
Commercial examples: Paulaner Krystal Weizen, Hofbrauhaus Krystal Weizen, Edelweiss, Schneider Weisse, Julius Echter Weizenbier, Spaten Club-Weisse, Oderdorfer Weiss, Erdinger Kristall Weissbier.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 8 - 15; SRM: 3 - 9.

Hefe-Weizen

Overall the profile of this beer is similar to Weizen. "Hefe" means "yeast" and that the only difference between this and the previous style is that the previous one does not have yeast in the bottom. A good wheat beer mit Hefe has a complex flavor but does not have the grittiness of autolyzed yeast or wort protein. Clove and slight banana character is required. Vanilla, nutmeg, smoke and cinnamon-like phenolics are permissible. Fruity/estery. Mild sourness is OK. Bitterness is low to unnoticeable. Low hop flavor and aroma is OK. No diacetyl. Light straw to amber. This style of beer is conditioned in the bottle or keg and will contain some yeast sediment. Lager or ale yeast may be used to condition the beer.
Commercial examples: Pschorr Weizen, Wurzburger, Paulaner Hefe-Weizen, Prince Luitpold Hefe-Weissbier, Erdinger Mit Feiner Hefe-Weizen, Schneider Hefe-Weizen.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5.5%; IBU's: 8 - 15; SRM: 3 - 9.

Dunkel Weizen

Dark version of Weizenbier which can be a bit stronger. The color is deep copper to full brown. Slight chocolate-like or toasted maltiness may be evident but should be very subdued at most. Medium bodied beer with an emphasis of dark malt. It usually has a little less of the characteristic clove-banana aromas. The combination of wheaty tartness and the lusciousness of dark malts makes this style full of flavor and complexity. Low diacetyl is OK. Low hop flavor and aroma is OK. The classic examples are unfiltered.
Commercial examples: Hecker-Pschorr Dark Wheat, Oberdorfer Dunkelweizen, Erdinger Dunkel Weizen, Tucher Dunkles Hefe Weizen.
O.G.: 1.045 - 1.055; Alcohol: 4.5 - 6%; IBU's: 10 - 15; SRM: 10 - 23.

Weizenbock

A stronger and more robust version of Weizen. A medium- to full-bodied beer, it is made from 40-60% wheat, but the palate emphasis is on the high malt flavor. Hop bitterness is low to undetectable. No hop flavor or aroma, but the clove and banana flavor and aroma are still evident. Color can be from light amber to dark brown. Dark versions may have a mild toasted malt flavor and aroma. Alcoholic strength should be evident. Low diacetyl is OK.
Commercial examples: Erdinger Pinkantus, Shneider Aventinius.
O.G.: 1.066 - 1.080; Alcohol: 6.5 - 7.5%; IBU's: 10 - 15; SRM: 7 - 25.

Berliner Weisse

This tart, refreshing, thirst-quenching beer can legally only be brewed in Berlin, Germany, although a few brewers in Northern Germany brew wheat beers in a similar style. Often called the Champagne of beers. Anywhere up to 75% malted wheat is used and results in a characteristic foamy large white head. The ale-type yeast and lactic combination produces a light body which is dry, tart, and has a sharp lactic sourness. The sourness can be very intense. Very pale yellow color, effervescent, modest alcohol content, no bitterness, no hop flavor or aroma and low fruity ester notes. No diacetyl. May be mixed with sweet syrups.
Commercial examples: Berliner Kindl Weisse, Schultheiss Berliner Weisse.
O.G.: 1.028 - 1.032; Alcohol: 2.5 - 3.5%; IBU's: 3 - 6; SRM: 2 - 4.

American Wheat Beer

A standard ale yeast is used. Typically have light, crisp grain flavors and aromas characteristic of wheat. The clovey aromas and flavors of Bavarian Weizenbiers are absent (and inappropriate). Low to medium fruitiness and esters. Hop bitterness can be from medium to none. Hop aroma and flavor can be high or low. The proportion of wheat is often greater than 50%. Light to medium body, pale straw to gold although light amber versions exist. Low diacetyl is OK. The use of lager yeast is OK. No phenolic character.
Commercial examples: Wheat Hook, Samuel Adam's Summer Wheat, Oregon Original Hefeweizen, Catamount American Wheat. O.G.: 1.030 - 1.050; Alcohol: 3.5 - 5%; IBU's: 5 - 30; SRM: 2 - 8.

Wit or Belgian White Beer

The orange taste and sweet-dry spiciness of Belgian-style wheat beer sets it apart from other wheat beers. Although orange peels are a common ingredient in this style, it is the type of yeast used that is mainly responsible for the orange/citrus aromas and flavors. This beer has a low to medium body and is brewed with up to 50% unmalted wheat, malted barley, and possibly oats. The unmalted wheat gives Witbier more firmness of body and graininess then German Weizen beers. The unmalted wheat has a "different" taste than malted wheat. It is stronger and maltier than Berlin Weiss but not as acidic. Wit is tangy and sharply refreshing with hints of orange, honey, and even muscat. It typically has a full yellow-white color and sports a very white head. Coriander seed, Curacao orange peel, Hallertauer and/or Saaz may all be used. Low to medium bitterness. Hop flavor and aroma is usually from "noble-types" is desired but not absolutely necessary. A young example will have a fruity, quenching quality, but the bottle-conditioned varieties will mature over two to three months, during which time the hop flavor will recede and the orange flavors will be accented, possibly by some Madeira notes. Dry. Low diacetyl is OK. Has low to medium fruity esters. Bottle conditioned.
Commercial examples: Hoegaarden Witbier, Celis White, Steendonk, Blanche de Namur, Titje, Wieckse Witte, Spring Street 1444 Wit.
O.G.: 1.044 - 1.050; Alcohol: 4.5 - 5%; IBU's: 15 - 30; SRM: 2 - 4.

Graetzer

Graetzer beer is of low gravity and strongly hopped with "noble-type" hops. It is made from 2/3 smoked, highly roasted wheat malt and 1/3 pale barley malt. A single step infusion mash is usually used. The flavor is very smoky and the style is very rare.
O.G.: 1030 - 1034; Alcohol: 3 - 3.5%; IBU's: 50.

Grodzisk

Grodzisk is a specialty of Grodzisk, Poland, near Poznan. It is made with a significant proportion of malted wheat, smoked over oak. The beer is top-fermented, perhaps with some wild yeast influence, and bottled-conditioned. It can be low in alcohol or of conventional strength. It is an extremely pale golden beer, with a faint haze, a dense white head, and a surprisingly light body. It has a sourish, sappy, oaky aroma (like a box that had held smoked herring), and a smoky, very deep, crisp palate. After a period of storage, it begins to develop a tart, quenching acidity.
O.G.: 1.030 - 1.055; Alcohol: 2.5 - 5%; IBU's: 10 - 20; SRM: 4

Yeast

INTRODUCTION
TEMPERATURE
ATTENUATION
pH RANGES
SMELLS AND TASTES
OBTAINING CULTURES AND MISCELLANY

PART 1: HYDRATION PROCEDURE FOR DRY YEASTS
PART 2: Propogation of Yeast Strains
PART 3: Yeast Washing for the Homebrewer
PART 4: Parallel Yeast Cultures

SECTION I.

INTRODUCTION

Yeast are unicellular fungi. Most brewing yeast belong to the genus Saccharomyces. Ale yeast are S. cerevisiae, and lager yeast are S. uvarum (formerly carlsbergerensis, BTW S. carlsbergerensis is listed in some places--for example, the ATCC--as a subspecies of S. cerevisiae). Another type of yeast you may hear mentioned, usually in conjunction with weizens, is S. delbrueckii. Finally, many Lambicophiles want me to say that Brettanomyces sp. are also used in brewing; however, I can't think of anything that somebody somewhere hasn't tried to brew a Lambic with :-)!! You may ask, "If all ale or lager yeast are basically the same species, why all the fuss?" The fuss has to do with strain variation. All dogs are the same species, yet no one will ever mistake a Basset Hound for a Doberman (at least not twice :-). Using different strains can add fun and spice to brewing, especially if you have some idea of the differences. I originally put together this guide to catalogue the different affects of different strains. This information is in Section II. Section I outlines the general characteristics of brewing yeast and tries to answer some of the more frequently asked questions about yeast that seem to cycle onto the HBD. Section III explains how the homebrewer can culture and maintain yeast strains in the safety and comfort of his/her own home.

SECTION I: YEAST CHARACTERISTICS

ACTIVITY

Some yeast strains are more active and vigorous than others. Lager strains in particular do not show as much activity on the surface as many of the ale strains. Most packages provide an adequate quantity of yeast to complete fermentation with varying amounts of lag time depending on strain, freshness, handling, and temperature. If you find it too slow, make a starter as recommended on the package or as listed in Section III.

TEMPERATURE

The slow onset of visible signs of fermentation can be improved by starting fermentation at 74 deg. F (24 deg. C) until activity is evident, then moving to your desired fermentation temperature. A few degrees can make a significant difference without adversely affecting flavor.

The normal temperatures for ale yeast range from 60-74 deg. F (16-24 deg. C) A few strains ferment well down to 44 deg. F (13 deg. C). 68 deg. F (20 deg. C) is a good average. Lager strains normally ferment from 32-74 deg. F (0-24 deg. C). 40-44 deg. F (10-12 deg. C) is customary for primary fermentation. A slow steady reduction to the desired temperature for secondary fermentation gives the best results.

The fermentation rate is closely related to temperature. The lower the temperature, the slower fermentation commences. Fluctuations in temperature such as cooling and warming from night to day can also adversely affect yeast performance.

ATTENUATION

Attenuation refers to the percentage of sugar converted to alcohol. Apparent attenuation of yeast normally ranges from 67-77%. The attenuation is determined by the composition of the wort or juice and the yeast strain used. Each yeast strain ferments different sugars to varying degrees, resulting in higher or lower final gravities. That will affect the residual sweetness and body.

Really, it's slightly more complex than that (isn't everything ? :-).There's "apparent attenuation" and "real attenuation". The difference comes about because alcohol has a specific gravity less than 1 (about 0.8). Real attenuation is the percent of sugars converted to alcohol. So, if you had a 10% (by weight) sugar solution (about 1.040), and got 100% real attenuation, the resulting specific gravity would be about 0.991 (corresponding to about 4% alcohol by weight). The apparent attenuation of this brew would be 122%! George Fix published a set of equations relating apparent and real attenuation and alcohol content last year. For example, let

A = alcohol content of finished beer in % by wt
and
RE = real extract of finished beer in deg. Plato.

Since A and RE are generally not known to us, additional approximations are needed. The following are due to Balling, and have proven to be reasonable. Let OE and be defined as follows:

OE = original extract (measured deg. Plato of wort)
AE = apparent extract (measured deg. Plato of finished beer).

Then,

RE = 0.1808*OE + 0.8192*AE,
and
A = (OE-RE)/(2.0664-0.010664*OE).

The "tricky part" here is the expression of the sugar content in degrees Plato. This is a fancy term for % sugar by weight, and corresponds roughly to "degrees gravity" divided by 4. That is, a 1.040 wort has an extract of 10 degrees Plato. He goes on to calculate an example: To take a specific case, first note that from Plato tables an OG of 1.044 is equivalent to OE = 11.24 deg. Plato, while a FG of 1.010 is equivalent to AE = 2.4 deg. Plato. Therefore,

RE = 0.1808*11.24 + 0.8192*2.4 = 4.08 deg. Plato,

and

A = (11.24 - 4.08)/(2.0664 - .010664*11.24) = 3.68 % wt.

The apparent attenuation is 74% (from 1.040 to 1.010), the real attenuation is (11.24 - 4.08)/11.24 = 64%. N.B. Most attenuation figures are given in terms of apparent attenuation.

(Thanks to Chris Pencis quoting Stuart Thomas quoting George Fix).

pH RANGES

Typical pH range for yeast fermentations begins at about 4.1 and optimally 4.8. The pH of wort is usually about 4, depending on the starting pH of the water and the grains or extracts used. During the course of fermentation the pH reduces to typically 3.9- 4.1 and as low as 3.1 in some wines. pH may be checked using pH paper test strips, which are available at many homebrew shops.

ALCOHOL TOLERANCES

The alcohol tolerance for most brewing yeast is as least to 8%. Barley wines to 12% can be produced by most ale strains. Pitching rates need to be increased proportionally to higher gravities. Alternately, Champagne and Wine yeast can be used for high gravities sometimes reaching alcohols to 18%. To get the characteristics of particular beer yeast strains in Barley Wines or Imperial Stouts, some brewers start with the desired beer strain, brew to 4-8%, and finish with a champagne or wine yeast.

SMELLS AND TASTES

Although the principle tastes present in a beer are the result of the malts and hops used, the strain of yeast used can also add important flavors, good and/or bad. Yeast that add little in the way of extra flavors are usually described as having a "clean" taste. These yeast are especially useful for beginners because they permit experimentation with different ingredients without worrying about yeast influence. Yeast produce three main classes of metabolic by-products that affect beer taste: phenols, esters, and diacetyl. Phenols can give a "spicy" or "clove-like" taste, but can also result in mediciny tastes, especially if they react with chlorine in the water to make chlorophenols. Esters can lend a "fruity" taste to beer. Diacetyls can give beer a "butterscotch" or sometimes a "woody" taste. The desirability of any one of these components depends largely on the style of beer being brewed. In addition, there are certain by-products in these families that are more noxious than the others. A lot depends on the individual palette and the effect you are aiming for.

A final note: some yeast, especially lager yeast during lagering, can produce a "rotten egg" smell. This is the result of hydrogen sulfite production. Although the scent of this bubbling out of the air-lock is enough to make the strongest homebrewmeister blanch, fear not! The good news is that this will usually pass, leaving the beer unaffected. Relax, etc.

OBTAINING CULTURES AND MISCELLANY

Most of the dry strains are available by mail-order or at your local homebrew store. Wyeast are also widely available (by which I mean, of course, that my local store carries a wide selection). The BrewTek strains and the Yeast Culture Kit strains are significantly less available, so the company contact numbers are included as a public service.

BrewTek: (800) 8BR-EWTE
Yeast Culture Kit Company: (800) 742-2110

Please do not confuse the Yeast Lab numbers with the Yeast Culture Kit Company numbers. Both use strain designations with the form A(le)## or L(ager)##, i.e. A06, L01, but they are completely different.

Also, a frequently asked question is "how do you pronounce Wyeast?" Well, it's pronounced like "WHY-yeast."

Section III: Yeast Management

PART 1: Hydration Procedure for Dry Yeast

Use 14 grams of dry yeast (usually 2 packets) per 4 gallons of brew. Rigorously sterilize everything used in the hydration procedure. This should include boiling and cooling the water for rehydration, so that chlorine is boiled off and the water is sanitized.

Add the dry yeast to 1/2 cup of water at 90F (32C). Leave for 14 mins.

Combine the hydrated yeast with 1-2 gallons of wort that is as close to the wort to be fermented as possible. You can take samples from the main wort at the end of the mash/sparge and rapidly boil and cool it.

Aerate the starter as much as possible under sanitary conditions.

Don't forget to properly oxygenate the main wort once it is chilled. (Shaking hot wort is dangerous, but even worse it can cause oxidation and give your beer funny flavors.)

Pitch the starter into the main wort once the latter has been chilled to the recommended fermentation temperature (64-68F or 18-20C). Yeast with good viability will result in minimal lags. (The longest experienced in test brews using the new Red Star Ale Yeast was 2 hrs.)

An alternative but slightly sub-optimal method is to cool the yeast-in-water mix from "b" to room temperature. Once the wort has been chilled and aerated (shaking the carboy works well), pitch the yeast. Stir or invert the carboy to disperse the yeast. Put in the blow-off tube or fermentation lock. The two most essential things are to:

Sanitize everything in sight.

Aerate your wort to insure rapid initial yeast growth--your best defense against secondary infection.

PART 2: Propogation of Yeast Strains

or
How to have your very own yeast ranch!

I am deeply indepted to George Fix for both giving me these chapters and letting me alter and condense them for the homebrewer. His support was an essential impetus for getting this FAQ off the ground.

General Comments

There is no single item as important as the selection of a yeast strain, or if appropriate strains, to be used in commercial brewing. The same applies to homebrewing. Sensory characteristics taste and smell will normally determine the type of yeast that is appropriate to any particular beer formulation. This section contains the necessary procedures for achieving self-sufficiency in pitching yeast. The part treated in this section is often called the Hansen pure culture system. The heart of this system is the so-called yeast slant. It is a test tube containing a solidified media sloped at an angle. Often Petri dishes are used, but the media is level, and hence the term slant is not always appropriate. In any case, yeast cells are streaked on the surface of the solid media. When refrigerated, these slants will keep at least 3-4 months before they have to be recultured. Yeast are taken from the slants, and built up so there is enough to pitch a full batch. The system also contains procedures for doing the exact opposite, i.e., adding yeast to slants for storage and future use.

Equipment

The equipment needs for operating a pure culture system with slants are rather modest. The following are the major items.

Refrigerator
This is needed for slant and media storage.

Autoclave or pressure cooker
This will be needed to sterilize equipment and media for yeast work. A pressure cooker will do, but it should have a pressure gauge attached so that the conditions during sterilization can be controlled.

Media
The preferred media for slants is malt extract and agar. These can be obtained from any scientific outlet. Food grade agar is also available from some oriental markets. The flaked form is easier to work with.

Misc.
A number of minor items will also be needed. These include inoculation loops, glassware, petri dishes, and test tubes.

Propagation of Yeast

This process consists of transferring some of the yeast on slants to a small flask or jar containing wort, then building this up until there is enough to pitch a full brew. The most delicate steps are the initial ones. Experience has shown that the best results are obtained by using full strength hopped wort for propagating yeast. The ideal situation is when the wort used in propagation is identical to the wort that will be used in brewing.
Practical experience has also shown that it is best to pitch yeast freshly harvested from slants at the maximum acceptable rate. Anticipating the results in the next section, this for lager yeast amounts to pitching 1 volume of yeast solids for each 240 volumes of wort. Thus, we need 4gal/240 = 0.02gal*128oz/gal = 2.4oz of yeast solids for a 4 gallon batch. Using the estimation that yeast solids are 1/10 the total volume of a yeast culture after the krauesen dies down (i.e. just entering lag phase), that means that one needs about 24oz or a little more than 3 cups culture. For ale yeast all of these numbers are reduced by a factor of two, so (3/2) to 2 cups of an ale yeast culture would be sufficient.
In the procedure described below new wort is added just after the end of the period of high krauesen, and in particular after the foam starts to recede. The reason for this is to keep the yeast in the aerobic exponential growth mode. This will insure a steady buildup of yeast cells, and thereby minimize the number of wort charges that are required. The importance of taking great care when adding fresh wort can not be overemphasized. To avoid infections not only is it necessary to properly sanitize equipment, but it also important to sterilize necks of vessels and jars by flame or 200 proof alcohol solutions. The easiest way to flame a jar at home is with a lighter (esp. the ones for pipe- smokers!). Be extremely careful, and don't use both alcohol and a lighter.
The first four steps described below are done under the cleanest conditions possible using 1000 ml. starter jars. At the end of the fourth step there will invariably be more than enough yeast in each starter jar to pitch a 24 liter brew (about 6gal); i.e., there will be at least 1/10 liter of yeast solids as can be checked by visual inspection. These numbers are based on the requirements of lager yeast. As will be seen below there will be no harm in producing too much yeast in this procedure since at the end only the correct amount will be added to the fermenter.

Preparations:

Carefully inspect all the slants that are to be propagated. Those which have unusual growth patterns and/or discoloration should be discarded. The ideal is thin white yeast layer on top of the solid media.

Autoclave the starter jars and the rubber stoppers for the airlocks for 4 mins. at 14 psi. Alternatively, use your favorite chemical sanitizing agent.

Add 240 ml. (about 8 oz) of wort to each starter jar. Wipe their necks with a 200 proof alcohol solution. After this add the airlocks.

Pasteurize the wort by adding the starter jars to a water bath at 60 C (140 F), and hold this temperature for 20 mins. Cool to 18 C (74 F).

In a clean room with no air movement (turn off fans and air conditioning for at least 14 min to give the dust a chance to settle), place starter jars, yeast slants, inoculation loops, and a 200 proof alcohol solution in a clean, quiet spot (i.e. lock the door after first insuring that Fido, Fluffy, and Junior are on the other side of it :-) !).

Inoculation:

For each jar, start by sterilizing its neck. Then sterilize ("flame") the inoculation loop. Open a slant, quench the loop in clean agar ("sizzle") and use the loop to remove some yeast. Remove the airlock and then add the yeast to the starter jar. Replace the airlock, and then start work on the next jar.

Initial Buildup:

Place the starter jars in a location where 68F (18C can be held). Resuspend the yeast twice daily by vigorously swirling the jars. 1L Erlenmeyer flasks are excellent for this purpose because they permit vigorous swirling without getting the wort up by the neck and opening. Also good--and more fun to prepare, Hic :-) --are 1.4L ex-wine bottles. The wine bottles are also cheaper, even with the wine. But be careful heating them--I have not used them, and I forget who recommended them as an alternative!

A widely used practice is to discard any starter that is not active within 48 hours. Certainly if some of the starters are active within this period, then the inactive ones should be discarded. In any case, any starter not active within 72 hours should definitely be discarded even if this means they are all discarded.

Second Wort Charge

When the foam has receded prepare 240ml. of fresh sterile and aerated wort for each starter.
The new wort is to be added to each starter, and this should be done as cleanly as possible.
Before pouring the wort into the starters, it is very important to swab the necks of the starter jar and the wort jar with a 200 proof alcohol solution to prevent contamination or flame them with a lighter.
It is also desirable to reduce the temperature to a point closer to the temperature that will be used in production if that is lower than 18 C. The temperature should be reduced slowly, e.g. few degrees a day. Large shifts in temperature (>10 deg F or >4 deg C) can cause marked slowing of yeast growth.
The starters should be swirled at the start and then again after 12 hours. New activity should be seen before 24 hrs. Those which are not active within 36-48 hours should be discarded.
Increase the volume of wort until you have sufficient volume to pitch.

Pitching the Yeast

At this time you should have a jar with about 400ml (a little more than 2 cups) of yeast for a 4gal ale batch. I would suggest pitching just after the krausen (foam) dies down, the logic being that the yeast have amassed glycogen reserves and are at their healthiest. Some other sources recommend pitching at high krausen, reasoning that the yeast are in the exponential growth phase. Whatever you do, avoid overdilution and keep accurate notes. The total volume will vary with batch size, yeast type, and your personal experience/whim. Remember to keep yeast notes along with your beer notes so that you can learn from experience!
Clean the outside of the jar with 200 proof alcohol or weak bleach and allow to dry.
Pour the yeast slurry carefully into the primary.

Preparation of New Slants

Two steps are needed in the preparation of new slants. The first consists of adding the proper media to test tubes or petri dishes. Once prepared the slants will store well far a very long time when refrigerated, so many can be prepared at one time. The second step consists of inoculating the slants with yeast. For the homebrewer who cannot afford several refrigerators: Please be advised that your refrigerator is a haven for bacteria, mold, and wild yeast. Anyone wishing to store sterile slants in their refrigerator is advised to

Wipe down the slants before storage with ethanol or your favorite sanitizing solution.
Seal the slants with parafilm or electrical tape.
Keep the slants in a ziplock bag.
Wipe down the bag with ethanol or your favorite sanitizing solution before opening.

The media consists of dry malt extract and agar. As a general rule 4 tablespoons of malt extract and 1 tablespoon of agar per cup of water will yield 16-18 slants.

Bring the water to a boil, and then stir in the malt extract. Boil for 10 mins.
Remove from heat, and then start stirring in the agar. This will take some effort, but this usually indicates that a good solidification will ultimately be achieved. If your slants "sweat" too much, you may want to increase the amount of agar you use. Although commercial/scientific agar will vary little, I cannot answer for "food grade" supplies. Gelatin is easier to dissolve, but it sometimes does not give a good solidification.
When the agar is dissolved, the malt/agar solution should be added to the test tubes, filling each to approximately a third of their volume. Add the screw cap, but do not fully tighten.
Autoclave the tubes at 14 psi for 14-20 mins.
Allow the tubes to cool. Don't tighten the caps until they are cool or they may implode! Although this sounds fun, in reality, flying glass shards and hot agar blobs are a nasty combo. They can be left overnight in the autoclave/ pressure-cooker so that they can cool in a sterile environment. Tighten the caps on the tubes, and place the tubes at a 30 degree angle. Allow them to solidify at room temperature. Solidification should become apparent within a few hours. Tubes which are not solid after 24 hrs. should be discarded.
Refrigerate until needed, heeding storage precautions above.

Note: Plastic petri dishes can not be autoclaved, and so alternate procedures are needed for them. You may use the above techniques with pyrex petri dishes if you so desire. A common practice is to autoclave the malt/ agar solution in small jars or flasks. The agar solution is then poured into the petri dishes. Let the agar cool until the jars are just slightly too hot to handle bare handed--about 40 deg C; the media will start to set around 40 degrees. If the agar is too hot it will warp plastic plates. Swirl it gently to mix but avoid bubbles. A few bubbles around the edges are unimportant, but sometime the whole surface of the plate is bubbles. You can pop the bubbles with the flame of a lighter! Or use a hot inocculation loop. Do not use your finger or blow on the plates. Let the poured plates dry 2 or 3 days in a clean quiet room before bagging. Condensation is normal, but you have to deal with it. Once the plates have cooled, turn them over (agar side on top) and always incubate them and store them in this position. That way the water vapor wafts into the agar and keeps it humid (slightly) and any condensation that does form drops to the lid and can be shaken off. Wipe them down, seal them, and bag them, but leave them at room temperature for 1 week. The bad bugs, if they are there, will be visually apparent at the end of that period and the contaminated plates can be discarded. While Petri dishes are more trouble than test tubes, they do offer the distinct advantage of having more surface area and being easier to store. After the trial period the dishes should be refrigerated.
Another Note: If you find mold (not wild yeast) contamination to be a persistent problem, Pierre Jelenc suggests:
From 0.4 to 1% sodium propionate in the medium will suppress practically all molds, without affecting the growth or viability of yeasts. The propionate can be either added before autoclaving, in which case the medium will turn cloudy, or as a sterile solution just before pouring the plates, in which case the medium will stay clear. There is no growth difference in either case. While not reinheitgebotmaessig, propionate is FDA-approved to prevent molds on foodstuffs.
Thanks Pierre!
Inoculation of Slants:

Collect a small portion of the yeast to be added to the slants. It goes without saying that one should strictly follow the standard sterilization procedures of all items used to collect this yeast. I usually open a Wyeast (or other brand) pouch, then streak a plate and make a starter at the same time, that way I know what I am getting. Feel free to culture from the dregs of your favorite unpastuerized brew or the roof of your favorite monastery.
With one hand sterilize the inoculation loop (flame or alcohol solution). With the other hand open the cap of a slant.
Dip the loop into the yeast solution, and remove a small amount.
Slowly insert the loop into the tube avoiding contact with either the sides or neck of the tube. Streak the yeast over the solid. Only a thin layer is wanted, and one should try to use as much of the surface area as possible.
Slowly remove the loop avoiding contact with tube walls or neck. Add the screw cap back on the tube and tighten.
When finished store the tubes at 24 C for one week. Visually inspect all tubes at this time both for yeast growth, and also for any irregularities (see below). Discard those which are not satisfactory. Growth for most Saccharomyces sp. should be evident within 3 days; Lambicophiles culturing Brettanomyces sp. are on their own (actually, these typically grow slower, about a week for the Brett--the species names have been withheld to protect the innocent). Brett may actually be better maintained in liquid culture, with an occasional streaking to check for gross contamination. Again, more rumor and hearsay.
Store the remainder at 2-8 C. After 3-4 mos. of storage, unused tubes should either be discarded or recultured; i.e., propagated by the procedures in Section III.2.c and then put on fresh slants. The best idea is to put production yeast on slants on a regular basis so that reculturing is not necessary.

Note: The larger surface area afforded by Petri dishes can be used to advantage in the above procedure. In particular, it useful to streak out yeast in parallel lines which make angles with each other. This allows for a better examination of growth patterns. Petri dishes should be sealed after the 1 week trial period with electrician's tape and refrigerated.
How can you tell contaminants (mold and bacteria) from yeast? J. Wyllie (The Coyote) [email protected] wrote in rec.crafts.brewing in answer to that question: (this has been slightly ammended)
*Things to look for: Colors: creamy off white. (red, yellow, etc likely to be contaminants) Textures/Shapes: Mostly roundish, like a demi-sphere. (Fuzzy=bad mold, flat=maybe bad). Light Transmittance: Hold the plate up to the light. Look for colonies which are transluscent- let light pass. If there are opaque ones (darker) consider them contaminants. You can still pick a pure colony off of a plate with a contaminant elsewhere on the plate (unless you have fuzzy fungal hyphae and spores all over)
The main thing is that you want homogeneous growth on the plate. Variation is something to be cautious of.

PART 3: Yeast Washing for the Homebrewer
Doug O'Brien forwarded the following to me. As it is a topic that pops up frequently on the HBD, I have included it in this FAQ. Post follows:

The following notes were taken from a demonstration given to the Oregon Brew Crew by Dave Logsdon of WYeast Labs, on September 12th. According to Dave, it was important for healthy yeast to be washed free of trub and hop residue so that it could be stored for future use. Dave said that the problem with simply storing the mixed contents from a carboy after fermentation was that the unwanted particulates would suffocate the yeast over a period of time. Most breweries, Dave stressed, use an acid wash; the sterile water wash is much more practical for homebrewers.

Objective:
To recover yeast from a finished batch of beer for repitching or storage for future brewing.

Materials:
One primary fermenter after beer has been siphoned off or otherwise removed.

Three sanitized 1-quart Mason jars with lids, half full of sterile or boiled water. They should be cooled down, then chilled to refrigerator temperature (ca. 38^F).
Procedures:

Sanitize the opening of the carboy (flame or wipe with chlorine or alcohol)
Pour the water from one of the quart jars into the carboy. Swirl the water to agitate the yeast, hop residue and trub from the bottom.
Pour contents from the carboy back into the empty jar and replace the cover.
Agitate the jar to allow separation of the components. Continue to agitate periodically until obvious separation is noticeable.
While the viable yeast remains in suspension, pour off this portion into the second jar. Be careful to leave as much of the hops and trub behind as possible.
Agitate the second container to again get as much separation of yeast from particulate matter as possible. Allow contents to rest (about 1/2 hour to 1 hour) then pour off any excess water--and floating hop particles--from the surface.
Pour off yeast fraction which suspends above the particulate into the third container. Store this container up to 1 month refrigerated. Pour off liquid and add wort 2 days before brewing or repitch into a new brew straight away.

It should be noted that in the actual demonstration, Dave eliminated the final step; the yeast in the second jar was essentially clean at this stage and seemingly fine for storage.

PART 4: Parallel Yeast Cultures

Rick Cavasin sent me (PW) the following method of "parallel" culturing liquid yeasts. This should work with most packaged liquid yeasts, not just Wyeast. The advantages here for the beginner are that (in additon to saving money) it minimizes the problems of strain drift and contamination that can plague yeast ranchers. As for the savings, it makes liquid yeast almost as cheap as dry yeast! Post follows:

Here's the (poor man's) method for stretching the Wyeast that I (Rick) have been using successfully. This method has worked for me with 4 different Wyeast ale strains (Whitbread, Irish, German, European). It's simple, and requires no special equipment. Also, it allows several brewers to swap yeasts with each brewer propagating one strain.
Briefly, my suggestion consists of converting the original Wyeast package into a number of 'copies' stored in beer bottles. ie. it is a parallel propagation rather than a serial propagation

Step 1: Prepare some starter wort (S.G. = 1.020), see Miller's book for recipe. Basically, you need about 1/2 gallon, but if you make more and can it in mason jars (using standard canning procedures), you will not have to prepare more at a later date. Note from PW--Most authorities now recommend using full strength (1.040), hopped wort for starters.

Step 2: Place 1/2 gallon or so of starter wort in a suitable container (1 gallon glass jug), pitch (inflated) Wyeast package at correct temp. and fit air lock. This is the 'master' starter.

Step 3: Allow to ferment to completion. When fermentation has ceased, agitate the 'beer' to suspend all sendiment, and very carefully bottle it.

You will now have about 6 bottles of very thin beer with a good deal of viable yeast sediment in each bottle. Use each bottle as you would use a package of Wyeast - ie. prepare a starter culture a couple days before brewing. This is facilitated by canning wort when you prepare the master starter. All you need to in that case is pop open a mason jar of wort, dump it into a sanitized bottle/jug of appropriate size, pop open one of your bottle cultures, add it, agitate vigorously, and fit an air lock. All yeast starters are of the same 'generation', ie. 'twice removed' from the original Wyeast package (as opposed to the usual 'once removed'). I've had the bottled cultures remain viable for more than 6 months. Observe proper sanitation and wort aeration procedures thoughout. Equipment: 1 gallon jug (for 'master' starter) 1.4 litre wine bottle (for subsequent starters) air lock 6 beer bottles, caps and capper Optional equipment: mason jars and canning pot. Cheers, Rick C.

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